Editing Structural functionalism (section)

===Robert Merton===
[[Robert K. Merton]] made important refinements to functionalist thought.<ref name=":4" /> He fundamentally agreed with Parsons' theory but acknowledged that Parsons' theory could be questioned, believing that it was over generalized.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Modern social theory: an introduction|last=Holmwood|first=John|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Harrington, Austin, 1970|isbn=978-0199255702|location=Oxford|pages=87–110|oclc=56608295}}</ref> Merton tended to emphasize [[middle range theory (sociology)|middle range theory]] rather than a [[grand theory]], meaning that he was able to deal specifically with some of the limitations in Parsons' thinking. Merton believed that any social structure probably has many functions, some more obvious than others.<ref name=":4" /> He identified three main limitations: functional unity, universal functionalism and indispensability.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Contemporary sociological theory|last=George.|first=Ritzer|date=1988|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=0075538326|edition= 2nd|location=New York, N.Y. etc.|oclc=908996993}}</ref> He also developed the concept of deviance and made the distinction between [[Manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions|manifest and latent functions]]. Manifest functions referred to the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern. Latent functions referred to unrecognized and [[unintended consequences]] of any social pattern.<ref name=":4" />

Merton criticized functional unity, saying that not all parts of a modern complex society work for the functional unity of society. Consequently, there is a social dysfunction referred to as any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society.<ref name=":4" /> Some institutions and structures may have other functions, and some may even be generally dysfunctional, or be functional for some while being dysfunctional for others.<ref>In sociology, another term for describing a ''positive function'', in opposition to a ''dysfunction'', is eufunction.</ref> This is because not all structures are functional for society as a whole. Some practices are only functional for a dominant individual or a group.<ref name=":0" /> 

There are two types of functions that Merton discusses the "manifest functions" in that a social pattern can trigger a recognized and intended consequence. The manifest function of education includes preparing for a career by getting good grades, graduation and finding good job. The second type of function is "latent functions", where a social pattern results in an unrecognized or unintended consequence. The latent functions of education include meeting new people, extra-curricular activities, school trips.<ref name=":4" /> 

Another type of social function is "social dysfunction" which is any undesirable consequences that disrupts the operation of society.<ref name=":4" /> The social dysfunction of education includes not getting good grades, a job. Merton states that by recognizing and examining the dysfunctional aspects of society we can explain the development and persistence of alternatives. Thus, as Holmwood states, "Merton explicitly made power and conflict central issues for research within a functionalist paradigm."<ref name=":0" />

Merton also noted that there may be functional alternatives to the institutions and structures currently fulfilling the functions of society. This means that the institutions that currently exist are not indispensable to society. Merton states "just as the same item may have multiple functions, so may the same function be diversely fulfilled by alternative items."<ref name=":0" /> This notion of functional alternatives is important because it reduces the tendency of functionalism to imply approval of the status quo.

Merton's theory of deviance is derived from Durkheim's idea of [[anomie]]. It is central in explaining how internal changes can occur in a system. For Merton, anomie means a discontinuity between cultural goals and the accepted methods available for reaching them.

Merton believes that there are 5 situations facing an actor.
* '''Conformity''' occurs when an individual has the means and desire to achieve the cultural goals socialized into them.
* '''Innovation''' occurs when an individual strives to attain the accepted cultural goals but chooses to do so in novel or unaccepted method.
* '''Ritualism''' occurs when an individual continues to do things as prescribed by society but forfeits the achievement of the goals.
* '''Retreatism''' is the rejection of both the means and the goals of society.
* '''Rebellion''' is a combination of the rejection of societal goals and means and a substitution of other goals and means.
Thus it can be seen that change can occur internally in society through either innovation or rebellion. It is true that society will attempt to control these individuals and negate the changes, but as the innovation or rebellion builds momentum, society will eventually adapt or face dissolution.