Editing Title IX (section)

== Impact on athletics programs ==

The introduction of Title IX was followed by a considerable increase in the number of female students participating in organized sports within American academic institutions<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Title IX changed the landscape of sports |url=https://www.sportanddev.org/latest/news/how-title-ix-changed-landscape-sports |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105235553/https://www.sportanddev.org/latest/news/how-title-ix-changed-landscape-sports |archive-date=2024-01-05 |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=sportanddev |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Olmstead |first=Maegan |date=2016-09-02 |title=Title IX and the Rise of Female Athletes in America |url=https://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/education/title-ix-and-the-rise-of-female-athletes-in-america/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105235606/https://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/education/title-ix-and-the-rise-of-female-athletes-in-america/ |archive-date=2024-01-05 |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=Women's Sports Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> followed by growing interest in initiating and developing programs which would pursue feminist principles in relationship to concerns surrounding issues dealing with girls and women's equality and equity in sport.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Boyce|first=Rebecca|date=Fall 2008|title=Cheerleading in the Context of Title IX and Gendering in Sport|url=http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=2a970548-ca6b-4b4a-8f5f-49b96d90d7b0%40sessionmgr4007&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=57121870&db=s3h|journal=EBSCO Host|volume=11}}</ref>

===Institutional requirements===
Athletic equality requirements were later set by the U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights, first in 1979 and later followed by several clarifications and amendments.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-28 |title=Athletics |url=https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/frontpage/pro-students/issues/sex-issue04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105235854/https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/frontpage/pro-students/issues/sex-issue04.html |archive-date=2024-01-05 |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=www2.ed.gov |language=en}}</ref> To meet the requirements, schools must pass at least one of three tests measuring sex equality among athletics the school offers.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ncwge.org/PDF/TitleIXat35.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316140025/http://www.ncwge.org/PDF/TitleIXat35.pdf |archive-date=2008-03-16 |url-status=live|title=A Report of the National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education|date=2008|work=Title IX at 35|access-date=December 5, 2019}}</ref> These tests consist of proportional numbers of males and females participating, whether or not the school is making an effort to increase the number of the unrepresented sex, if the school has a certain history of one specific sex dominating the numbers of athletes in a given sport, and whether or not the school is showing an effort to expand the program to the other sex.<ref name=":1" />

===Challenges===
There have been different interpretations regarding Title&nbsp;IX's application to high school athletics. The American Sports Council sued the Department of Education in 2011 seeking a declaratory judgment that its policy interpreting Title&nbsp;IX's requirement for equity in participation opportunities is limited to colleges and universities.<ref name="Frommer">Frederick J. Frommer. [https://abcnews.go.com/Sports/wireStory?id=14125030 "Group Sues Over Title&nbsp;IX High School Enforcement."] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130124071600/http://abcnews.go.com/Sports/wireStory?id=14125030 |date=January 24, 2013 }}, Associated Press, July 21, 2011.</ref> The American Sports Council argued that "The three-part test and its encouragement of quotas, has no relevance to high schools or high-school sports, and no federal regulation or interpretation has ever said that high schools must abide by the three-part test".<ref name="McErlain" /> On the other hand, the Department of Education insists that Title&nbsp;IX is a "valuable tool" for ensuring a level playing field for all students" and "plays a critical role in ensuring a fundamental level of fairness in America's schools and universities".<ref name="Frommer" />

===Coaching and administration===
Although Title IX has helped increase the participation rate of female student athletes, several challenges remain for girls and women, including for females who aspire to become involved in professional roles within sport. The growing exposure of [[Women's sports|female sports]] has led to an increasingly dominant representation of males in coaching positions and roles involving the governance of female athletics.<ref name=":0" />

In regards to coaching roles, in spite of the fact that the legislation has helped create more and better opportunities for women, the number of women coaches has surprisingly decreased while the number of male coaches have subsequently increased. Men have also gained a larger role in directing female athletics. For example, the male-dominated [[National Collegiate Athletic Association]] (NCAA), which had been content to let the female-dominated [[Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women]] (AIAW) run female championships, decided to offer female championships themselves, leading to the eventual demise of the AIAW.<ref name="Hult 240">{{harvnb|Hult |p=240}}</ref> The NCAA later tried to claim that Congress had not intended to include athletics under Title IX's coverage, but the record lacks any sustained discussion of the matter.<ref>(Game, Set, Match | Author: Susan Ware| Date= 2011)</ref>

===Increasing participation===

Advocates of Title&nbsp;IX's current interpretation cite increases in female athletic participation, and attribute those increases to Title&nbsp;IX.<ref>{{cite web |title=Title&nbsp;IX Athletic Statistics |publisher=[[American Association of University Women]] |url=http://www.aauw.org/advocacy/laf/lafnetwork/library/athleticStatistics.cfm |access-date=October 13, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016045122/http://www.aauw.org/advocacy/laf/lafnetwork/library/athleticStatistics.cfm |archive-date=October 16, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncwge.org/PDF/TitleIXat35.pdf |title=Title&nbsp;IX at 35: Beyond the Headlines |publisher=National Coalition of Women and Girls in Education |access-date=October 13, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919181353/http://www.ncwge.org/PDF/TitleIXat35.pdf |archive-date=September 19, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.titleix.info/ |title=TitleIX.info |access-date=October 13, 2009 |publisher=The MARGARET Fund of NWLC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621091142/http://www.titleix.info/ |archive-date=June 21, 2009 }}</ref> One study, completed in 2006, pointed to a large increase in the number of women participating in athletics at both the high school and college level. The number of women in high school sports had increased by a factor of nine, while the number of women in college sports had increased by more than 450%.<ref>Linda Jean Carpenter and R. Vivian Acosta, ''Women in Intercollegiate Sport: A Longitudinal National Study Twenty-Nine Year Update 1977–2006'' (2006)).</ref> A 2008 study of intercollegiate athletics showed that women's collegiate sports have grown to 9,101 teams, or 8.65 per school. The five most frequently offered college sports for women are in order: (1) Basketball, 98.8% of schools have a team; (2) Volleyball, 95.7%; (3) Soccer, 92.0%; (4) Cross Country; 90.8%, and (5) Softball; 89.2%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://webpages.charter.net/womeninsport/2008%20Summary%20Final.pdf |title=Women in Intercollegiate Sport, a Longitudinal National Study |year=2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704090411/http://webpages.charter.net/womeninsport/2008%20Summary%20Final.pdf |archive-date=July 4, 2008 |access-date=March 31, 2010 }}</ref>  The lowest rank for female sports teams is bowling.  The exact percentage is not known; however, there are only around 600 students on women's bowling teams in all three divisions in the NCAA.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NCAA.org – The Official Site of the NCAA|url=http://www.ncaa.org/|access-date=2021-02-26|website=NCAA.org |language=en}}</ref>

===Impact on men's programs===

There have been concerns and claims that the current interpretation of Title&nbsp;IX by the [[Office for Civil Rights]] (OCR) has resulted in the dismantling of men's programs, despite strong participation in those sports.<ref name="Shelton 2001">{{cite journal |title=Equally Bad is Not Good: Allowing Title&nbsp;IX "Compliance" by the Elimination of Men's Collegiate Sports  |journal=University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform |first=Donald E. |last=Shelton |year=2001 |volume=34 |number=1 |ssrn=1163230}}</ref> Some believe that the increase in athletic opportunity for girls in high school has come at the expense of boys' athletics. Because teams vary widely in size, it is more common to compare the number of total participation opportunities between the sexes. Additionally, the total number of college participation opportunities has increased for both sexes in the Title&nbsp;IX era, though solely for women when increased enrollment is accounted for, as men's participation has remained static relative to university enrollment, and men's opportunities outnumber women's by a wide margin.<ref name="GAO">GAO</ref>

Between 1981 and 1999, university athletic departments cut 171 men's [[collegiate wrestling]] teams, 84 men's [[tennis]] teams, 56 men's [[gymnastics]] teams, 27 men's [[track and field|track]] teams, and 25 men's [[swimming (sport)|swimming]] teams.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=March 8, 2001|title=Intercollegiate Athletics: Four-Year Colleges' Experiences Adding and Discontinuing Teams|url=https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-01-297.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211035422/https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-01-297|archive-date=December 11, 2008|access-date=August 3, 2021|website=[[Government Accountability Office]]|series=GAO-01-297}}</ref> While some teams—both men's and women's—have been eliminated in the Title&nbsp;IX era, both sexes have seen a net increase in the number of athletic teams over that same period.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="Women's Sports Foundation">Women's Sports Foundation. [http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/en/home/research/articles-and-reports/school-and-colleges/gender-equity-report-card "Gender Equity Report Card."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130107110946/http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/en/home/research/articles-and-reports/school-and-colleges/gender-equity-report-card |date=January 7, 2013 }}, [[Women's Sports Foundation]], 1997.</ref> When total enrollment (which had likewise increased) is controlled for however, only women had an increase in participation.<ref name="GA0">GAO. [http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07535.pdf "Intercollegiate Athletics: Recent Trends in Teams and Participants in National Collegiate Athletic Association Sports."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925010059/http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07535.pdf |date=September 25, 2012 }}, [[Government Accountability Office]], 2007.</ref>

Though interest in the sport of [[Scholastic wrestling|wrestling]] has consistently increased at the high school level since 1990,<ref>{{cite news |title=USA Wrestling response to quotes by Donna Lopiano – Women's Sports Found. |year=2000 |url=http://www.themat.com/section.php?section_id=3&page=showarticle&ArticleID=2523 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710041414/http://themat.com/section.php?section_id=3&page=showarticle&ArticleID=2523 |archive-date=July 10, 2012 |access-date=April 27, 2010 }}</ref> scores of colleges have dropped their wrestling programs during that same period.<ref name="collegesportsscholarships.com">{{cite news |title=Title&nbsp;IX has hurt the college sport, but it is now fighting back. |year=2003 |url=http://www.collegesportsscholarships.com/title-ix-fall-college-wrestling.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113131238/http://www.collegesportsscholarships.com/title-ix-fall-college-wrestling.htm |archive-date=January 13, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="collegian.psu.edu">{{cite news|title=Wrestling programs threatened by Title&nbsp;IX. |year=1997 |url=http://www.collegian.psu.edu/archive/1997/03/03-28-97tdc/03-28-97d03-017.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030105092313/http://www.collegian.psu.edu/archive/1997/03/03-28-97tdc/03-28-97d03-017.htm |archive-date=January 5, 2003 }}</ref> The OCR's three-prong test for compliance with Title&nbsp;IX often is cited as the reason for these cuts.<ref name="collegian.psu.edu"/><ref name="usatoday.com">{{cite news |title=Bucknell to drop wrestling for Title&nbsp;IX compliance. |year=2001 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/college/2001-05-02-bucknell-title9.htm.htm }} {{Dead link|date=September 2011|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> [[Collegiate wrestling|Wrestling]] historically was the most frequently dropped sport,<ref name="usatoday.com"/> but other men's sports later overtook the lead. According to the NCAA, the most-dropped men's sports between 1987 and 2002 were as follows:<ref name="collegesportsscholarships.com"/>

#cross country (183)
#indoor track (180)
#golf (178)
#tennis (171)
#rowing (132)
#outdoor track (126)
#swimming (125)
#wrestling (121)

Additionally, eight NCAA sports—all men's sports—were sponsored by fewer [[NCAA Division I|Division I]] schools in 2020 than in 1990, despite the D-I membership having increased by nearly 60 schools during that period.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.si.com/college/2020/06/11/college-sports-program-cuts-ncaa-olympics |title=A Collegiate Model in Crisis: The Crippling Impact of Schools Cutting Sports |first1=Ross |last1=Dellenger |first2=Pat |last2=Forde |author-link2=Pat Forde |magazine=Sports Illustrated |date=June 11, 2020 |access-date=June 30, 2020}}</ref>

A 2023 study found, however, that when men's sports were cut, the funding for those sports was primarily re-directed to the men's football and basketball programs. The study moreover suggests that it is in athletic directors' interest to not admit that the additional funding was for football and basketball, but to rather blame Title IX for the cuts.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://athleticdirectoru.com/articles/cutting-mens-teams-and-title-ix/ | title=Cutting Men's Teams and Title IX: Where Does the Money Go? | date=August 24, 2023 }}</ref>

In 2011, the [[American Sports Council]] (formerly called the College Sports Council) stated, "Nationwide, there are currently 1.3&nbsp;million more boys participating in high school sports than girls. Using a [[gender]] quota to enforce Title&nbsp;IX in high school sports would put those young athletes at risk of losing their opportunity to play."<ref name="McErlain">McErlain, Eric. [http://collegesportscouncil.org "College Sports Council Urges High Schools to Fight Use of Gender Quotas to Comply with Title&nbsp;IX in Athletics."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528101714/http://www.collegesportscouncil.org/ |date=May 28, 2016 }}, College Sports Council, February 8, 2011.</ref> High school participation rates from the [[National Federation of State High School Associations|National Federation of High School associations]] report that in 2010–11, there were 4,494,406 boys and 3,173,549 girls participating in high school athletics.<ref name="NFHS">NFHS [http://www.nfhs.org/content.aspx?id=5752 "High School Sports Participation Continues Upward Climb."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815140834/http://www.nfhs.org/content.aspx?id=5752 |date=August 15, 2012 }}, National Federation of High School Associations, August 24, 2011,</ref>

In a 2007 study of athletic opportunities at NCAA institutions the [[Women's Sports Foundation]] reported that over 150,000 female athletic opportunities would need to be added to reach participation levels proportional to the female undergraduate population.<ref>Cheslock, John. [http://www.epi.soe.vt.edu/perspectives/policy_news/pdf/TitleIXFR.pdf "Who's Playing College Sports."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702185451/http://www.epi.soe.vt.edu/perspectives/policy_news/pdf/TitleIXFR.pdf |date=July 2, 2010 }}, [[Women's Sports Foundation]], 2007.</ref> The same study found that men's athletics also receives the lion's share of athletic department budgets for operating expenses, recruiting, scholarships, and coaches salaries.<ref name="Women's Sports Foundation" />