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Vibraphone
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==Construction== === Bars === [[File:Vibraphone bar.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|The underside of the low F{{sub|3}} bar is exposed, showing the tuning marks, a disc, and the pins and cord used to hold the bar.]] Vibraphone bars are made from aluminum bar stock, cut into blanks of predetermined length. Holes are drilled through the width of the bars, so they can be suspended by a cord (typically [[parachute cord|paracord]]). To maximize the sustain of the bars, the holes are placed at approximately the nodal points of the bar (i.e., the points of minimum amplitude around which the bar vibrates). For a uniform bar, the nodal points are located 22.4% from each end of the bar.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Miller |first=Dayton C. |date=2006 |title=Tone Bars β Physics |url=https://physics.case.edu/about/history/antique-physics-instruments/tone-bars-2/ |access-date=15 March 2022 |publisher=[[Case Western Reserve University]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference |last=Worland |first=Randy |date=2011 |title=Experimental Study Of Vibraphone Pitch Bending Using Electronic Speckle-pattern Interferometry |journal=Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics |volume=12 |issue=1 |conference=Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics |location=Seattle, WA |page=2 |doi=10.1121/2.0000023 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Material is ground away from the underside of the bars in an arch shape to lower the pitch. This allows the lower-pitched bars to be a manageable length. It is also the key to the mellow sound of the vibraphone (and marimba, which uses the same deep arch) compared with the brighter [[xylophone]], which uses a shallower arch, and the glockenspiel, which has no arch at all. These rectangular bars have three primary modes of vibration.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moore |first=James L. |title=Acoustics of Bar Percussion Instruments |publisher=Per-Mus Publications |year=1978 |location=Columbus, OH |oclc=906308587}}</ref> The deep arch causes these modes to align and create a consonant arrangement of intervals: a fundamental pitch, a pitch two octaves above that, and a third pitch an octave and a major third above the second. For the F{{sub|3}} bar that usually forms the lowest note on a vibraphone, there would be F{{sub|3}} as the fundamental, F{{sub|5}} as the first [[Overtone#Musical usage term|overtone]], and A{{sub|6}} as the second overtone. As a side effect, the arch causes the nodal points of the fundamental vibration to shift closer towards the ends of the bar.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beaton |first1=Douglas |last2=Scavone |first2=Gary |date=June 2021 |title=Three-dimensional tuning of idiophone bar modes via finite element analysis |url=https://asa.scitation.org/doi/10.1121/10.0005062 |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=149 |issue=6 |pages=3758β3768 |doi=10.1121/10.0005062 |pmid=34241415 |bibcode=2021ASAJ..149.3758B |s2cid=235776759 |issn=0001-4966|url-access=subscription }}</ref> After beveling or rounding the edges, fine-tuning adjustments are made. If a bar is flat, its overall pitch structure can be raised by removing material from the ends of the bar. Once this slightly sharp bar is created, the secondary and tertiary tones can be lowered by removing material from specific locations of the bar. Vibraphones are tuned to a standard of A = 442 Hz or A = 440 Hz, depending on the manufacturer or the customer's preference. While [[concert pitch]] is generally A = 440 Hz, the sharper tuning of A = 442 Hz is used to give the vibraphone a slightly brighter sound to cut through the ensemble.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Primatic |first=Stephen |title=Percussion Instruments: Purchasing, Maintenance, Troubleshooting & More |publisher=Meredith Music |others=Garwood Whaley |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-57463-451-8 |edition=1st |location=Delray Beach, FL |pages=32 |oclc=1091896031}}</ref> Like marimbas, professional vibraphones have bars of graduated width. Lower bars are made from wider stock, and higher notes from narrower stock, to help balance volume and tone across the range of the instrument.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoffman |first=Stewart |title=The Band Teacher's Percussion Guide |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-046168-3 |location=New York, NY |pages=126 |oclc=950004306}}</ref> The bars are [[Anodizing|anodized]] after fine-tuning (typically in a silver or gold color) and may have a glossy or matte finish. These are cosmetic features with a negligible effect on the sound.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wollwage |first=Troy C. |date=4 June 2019 |title=Anatomy of a Vibraphone |url=https://hub.yamaha.com/drums/percussion/anatomy-of-a-vibraphone/ |publisher=[[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]]}}</ref> The bed for the bars is made by laying down four wooden rails onto each end of the frame. Each rail has a series of pins with rubber spacers. As the cord passes through the holes of the bar, they rest on the pins to suspend the bars. On each outer side, the ends of the cord attach together with a spring to provide tension and flex.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Skidmore |first=David |date=2012 |title=Percussion 101 (Keyboard Percussion): Characteristics and Maintenance |url=https://vicfirth.zildjian.com/education/percussion-101-keyboard-percussion.html |website=[[Vic Firth]] |at=2:19 |type=video}}</ref> ===Resonators=== Resonators are thin-walled tubes, typically made of aluminum, but any suitably strong material can be used. They are open at one end and closed at the other. Each bar is paired with a resonator whose diameter is slightly wider than the width of the bar and whose length to the closure is one-quarter of the wavelength of the fundamental frequency of the bar. When the bar and resonator are properly in tune with each other, the vibrating air beneath the bar travels down the resonator and is reflected from the closure at the bottom, then returns to the top and is reflected back by the bar, over and over, creating a much stronger standing wave and increasing the amplitude of the fundamental frequency.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stevens |first=Leigh Howard |author-link=Leigh Howard Stevens |date=2019 |title=The Acoustics of Resonators |url=https://malletech.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Acoustics_of_Resonators1-4.pdf |publisher=Malletech |page=12}}</ref> The resonators, besides raising the upper end of the vibraphone's [[Dynamics (music)|dynamic]] range, also affect the overall tone of the vibraphone, since they amplify the fundamental frequency, but not the upper partials.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tuttle |first1=B. C. |last2=Burroughs |first2=C. B. |date=1998 |title=The Effects of a Resonator Tube on the Timbre and Directivity of Sound Radiated from a Vibraphone Bar |publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University]] |page=6 |citeseerx=10.1.1.482.5193 |oclc=198987505}}</ref> There is a trade-off between the amplifying effect of the resonators and the length of sustain of a ringing bar. The energy in a ringing bar comes from the initial mallet strike, and that energy can either be used to make the bar ring louder initially, or not as loudly but for a longer period of time. This is not an issue with marimbas and xylophones, where the natural sustain time of the wooden bars is short, but vibraphone bars can ring for many seconds after being struck, and this effect is highly desirable in many circumstances. Therefore, the resonators in a vibraphone are usually tuned slightly off-pitch to create a balance between loudness and sustain.{{Sfn|Rossing|2000|p=66}} A unique feature of vibraphone resonators is the shaft of rotating discs, commonly called fans, across the top. When the fans are open, the resonators have full function. When the fans are closed, the resonators are partially occluded, reducing the resonance of the fundamental pitch. A [[Belt (mechanical)|drive belt]] connects the shafts to an electric motor beneath the playing surface and rotates the fans. This rotation of the fans creates a [[tremolo]] effect and a slight [[vibrato]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hosken |first=Daniel W. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/869365321 |title=An Introduction to Music Technology |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-82572-6 |edition=2nd |location=New York, NY|oclc=869365321 }}</ref> Oftentimes, vibraphones, and other mallet instruments, will include non-functional, decorative resonator tubes with no corresponding bar above to make the instrument look more complete.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yamaha |title=The Structure of the Marimba: Inside and outside the resonator pipes |url=https://www.yamaha.com/en/musical_instrument_guide/marimba/mechanism/mechanism002.html |access-date=3 September 2020 |website= |language=en}}</ref> In 1970, Deagan introduced the ElectraVibe, which dispensed with resonator tubes entirely and took a signal directly from the bars, adding a tremolo in a preamplifier. This sought to improve the portability of the instrument and solve the problem inherent in all tuned mallet instruments: miking the bars evenly.{{Sfn|Beck|2007|p=401}} ===Damper mechanism=== For the first few years of production, the original Leedy vibraphone did not include a mechanism for [[Damping (music)|damping]], or stopping, the sustaining tones. In 1927, the J.C. Deagan company introduced a pedal mechanism that has not changed substantially since. A rigid bar beneath the center of the instrument is pressed upward by an adjustable spring and engages a long felt pad against the sharps and the naturals. A foot pedal lowers the bar and allows notes to ring freely; releasing the pedal engages the damper and stops any vibrating notes. One common flaw of this damping mechanism is that the bar is often supported at one point in the middle, causing it to damp the instrument unevenly in the upper and lower registers. To combat this, some manufacturers have made silicone- or liquid-filled damper pads whose fluid shape can conform evenly around the bars.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Walker |first=James |date=2001 |title=Vibraphone Pedaling |url=http://www.malletjazz.com/lessons/vib_ped.html |access-date=27 August 2020 |website=MalletJazz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ludwig-Musser |date=April 2001 |title=M58/M58M Piper Vibe (User's Manual) |url=https://www.ludwig-drums.com/application/files/8414/6419/9031/M58.pdf |website=[[Ludwig Drums]] |page=5}}</ref> ===Motor=== [[File:Vibraphone motor.jpg|thumb|282x282px|The exposed mechanism of the motor and rubber pulley is shown.]] Vibraphones usually have an electric motor and pulley assembly mounted on one side or the other to drive the disks in the resonators. Often, especially within classical music, the vibraphone is played with the motor off. Certain models for outdoor use as part of a [[front ensemble]] have the motor removed entirely.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Moyer |first=Iain |date=2020 |title=Front Ensemble Friday: Iain Moyer β A Marimbists & Arrangers Guide to Vibraphone |url=https://marchingartseducation.com/front-ensemble-friday-iain-moyer-a-marimbists-arrangers-guide-to-vibraphone/ |website=Marching Arts Education |type=video}}</ref> In those cases having the motor off is the norm and is not used unless specifically called for.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Solomon |first=Samuel Z. |title=How to Write for Percussion: A Comprehensive Guide to Percussion Composition |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-992035-8 |edition=2nd |location=New York, NY |page=104 |oclc=936117814}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hartenberger |first=Russell |url= |title=Performance Practice in the Music of Steve Reich |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-316-77874-6 |location=New York, NY |pages=188 |oclc=960643262}}</ref> The early vibraphones used motors that were intended to power [[Phonograph#Turntable technology|record-player turntables]] and had limited to no speed-adjustment capabilities. Whatever speed adjustments were possible were made by moving the drive belt among a small number of pulleys (usually three) of varying diameters. Later, variable-speed [[AC motor]]s became available at reasonable prices. These motors allow the adjustment of the rotating speed by a [[potentiometer]] mounted on a control panel near the motor. They typically support rotation rates in the range of 1β12 Hz.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ann Meyer |first=Jacqueline |title=The History and Development of the Vibes |publisher=[[University of Indiana]] |year=1973 |pages=7 |oclc=23646943}}</ref>
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