Editing Whistled language (section)

== Characteristics of whistled languages==

=== Tonal and non-tonal whistle languages ===

Whistled languages differ according to whether the spoken language is [[Tonal language|tonal]] or not, with the whistling being either tone or [[Manner of articulation|articulation]] based (or both). Most whistle languages, of which there are several hundred, are based on tonal languages.

A way in which true whistled languages differ from other types of whistled communication is that they encode auditory features of spoken languages by 'transposing' (i.e.carrying over into a whistled form) key components of speech sounds. There are two types of whistled languages: those based on non-tone languages, which transpose F² [[formants]] patterns, those based on tone languages which transpose tonal-melodies.<ref name=Rialland2005>{{cite journal |last1=Rialland |first1=Annie |title=Phonological and phonetic aspects of whistled languages |journal=[[Phonology (journal)|Phonology]] |date=August 2005 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=237–271 |doi=10.1017/S0952675705000552 |citeseerx=10.1.1.484.4384 |s2cid=18615779}}</ref> However, both types of whistle tones have a phonological structure that is related to the spoken language that they are transposing.

Tonal languages are often stripped of articulation, leaving only [[suprasegmental feature]]s such as duration and tone, and when whistled retain the spoken melodic line. Thus whistled tonal languages convey [[phoneme|phonemic]] information solely through [[pitch (music)|tone]], length, and, to a lesser extent, [[vocal stress|stress]], and most [[segment (linguistics)|segmental]] phonemic distinctions of the spoken language are lost.

In non-tonal languages, more of the articulatory features of speech are retained, and the normally [[timbral]] variations imparted by the movements of the [[tongue]] and [[soft palate]] are transformed into [[pitch (music)|pitch]] variations.<ref name=Busnel1976>{{cite book |last1=Busnel |first1=R.-G. |last2=Classe |first2=A. |year=1976 |title=Whistled Languages |location=New York |publisher=Springer-Verlag |isbn=0-387-07713-8}}{{page needed|date=November 2020}}</ref> Certain consonants can be pronounced while whistling, so as to modify the whistled sound, much as consonants in spoken language modify the vowel sounds adjacent to them.

Different whistling styles may be used in a single language. [[Sochiapam Chinantec]] has three different words for whistle-speech: '''sie<sup>3</sup>''' for whistling with the tongue against the alveolar ridge, '''jui̵<sup>32</sup>''' for bilabial whistling, and '''juo<sup>2</sup>''' for finger-in-the-mouth whistling. These are used for communication over varying distances. There is also a kind of loud falsetto ('''hóh<sup>32</sup>''') which functions in some ways like whistled speech.<ref>{{cite web |title=A whistled conversation in Sochiapam Chinantec |publisher=Summer Institute of Linguistics in Mexico |url=http://www-01.sil.org/mexico/chinanteca/sochiapam/13i-Conversacion-cso.htm |access-date=2014-09-04 |archive-date=2013-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112062156/http://www-01.sil.org/mexico/chinanteca/sochiapam/13i-Conversacion-cso.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Tonal whistle languages and types of tones ====

Only the tone of the speech is saved in the whistle, while aspects as articulation and phonation are eliminated. These are replaced by other features such as stress and rhythmical variations. However, some languages, like that of the [[Zezuru]] who speak a [[Shona language|Shona]]-derived dialect, include articulation so that consonants interrupt the flow of the whistle. A similar language is the [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]] whistle language used in the highlands in the Southern parts of [[Mozambique]]. This should not be confused with the [[whistled sibilant]]s of Shona.

There are two different types of whistle tones - [[Physics of whistles#Hole|hole tones]] and [[Physics of whistles#Edge tone|edge tones]]. A hole (or 'orifice') tone is produced by a fast-moving cylinder (or 'vena contracta') of air that interacts with the slow-moving anulus of air surrounding it.<ref name=Shosted2006>{{cite journal |last1=Shosted |first1=Ryan K. |title=Just Put Your Lips Together and Blow? The Whistled Fricatives of Southern Bantu |journal=UC Berkeley PhonLab Annual Report |date=2006 |volume=2 |issue=2 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3p19w08r}}</ref> Instability in the boundary layer leads to perturbations that increase in size until a feedback path is established whereby specific frequencies of the resonance chamber are emphasized.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shadle |first1=Christine H. |title=Experiments on the acoustics of whistling |journal=The Physics Teacher |date=March 1983 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=148–154 |doi=10.1119/1.2341241 |bibcode=1983PhTea..21..148S}}</ref> An edge tone, on the other hand, is generated by a thin jet of air that strikes an obstacle. Vortices are shed near the point of disturbance in the flow, alternating on each side of the obstacle or 'wedge'.<ref name=Shosted2006/>

One of the best-studied whistled languages is a whistled language based on Spanish called [[Silbo Gomero language|Silbo]], whistled on the island of [[La Gomera]] in the [[Canary Islands]] ([[Annie Rialland|Rialland]] 2005). The number of distinctive sounds or phonemes in this language is a matter of disagreement, varying according to the researcher from two to five vowels and four to nine consonants. This variation may reflect differences in speakers' abilities as well as in the methods used to elicit contrasts. The work of Meyer<ref name=Meyer2005/><ref name=Meyer2008/> clarifies this debate by providing the first statistical analyses of production for various whistlers as well as psycholinguistic tests of vowel identification.

==== Non-tonal whistle languages ====

In a non-tonal language, segments may be differentiated as follows:

:Vowels are replaced by a set of relative pitch ranges generally tracking the f<sub>2</sub> [[formant]] of spoken language.

:Stress is expressed by higher pitch or increased length

:Consonants are produced by pitch transitions of different lengths and height, plus the presence or absence of [[Occlusive|occlusion]]. ("Labial [[stop consonant|stops]] are replaced by [[diaphragm (anatomy)|diaphragm]] or [[glottalization|glottal]] occlusions.")

=== Sound production techniques ===
{{ see also | Physics of whistles| Speech production | Place of articulation }}

Whistling techniques do not require the vibration of the [[vocal cords]]: they produce a shock effect of the compressed air stream inside the cavity of the mouth and/or of the hands. When the jaws are fixed by a finger, the size of the hole is stable. The air stream expelled makes vibrations at the edge of the mouth. The faster the air stream is expelled, the higher is the noise inside the cavities. If the hole (mouth) and the cavity (intra-oral volume) are well matched, the resonance is tuned, and the whistle is projected more loudly. The frequency of this [[Bioacoustics|bioacoustical]] phenomenon is modulated by the morphing of the resonating cavity that can be, to a certain extent, related to the [[Speech production#Places of articulation|articulation]] of the equivalent spoken form.<ref name="Asher, R. E. 1994"/> "Apart from the five vowel-phonemes [of Silbo Gomero]—and even these do not invariably have a fixed or steady pitch—all whistled speech-sound realizations are [[semivowel|glides]] which are interpreted in terms of range, contour, and steepness."<ref name=Busnel1976/>

==== Bilabial and labiodental techniques ====

There are a few different techniques of how to produce whistle speech, the choice of which is dependent on practical concerns. [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]] and [[Labiodental consonant|labiodental]] techniques are common for short and medium distance discussions (in a market, in the noise of a room, or for hunting); whereas the [[Retroflex consonant#Features|tongue retroflexed]], one or two fingers introduced in the mouth, a blow concentrated at the junction between two fingers or the lower lip pulled while breathing in air are techniques used to reach high levels of power for long distance speaking.<ref name="Asher, R. E. 1994">{{cite book |last1=Asher |first1=R. E. |first2=J. M. Y. |last2=Simpson |chapter=Whistled Speech and Whistled Language |title=The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics |location=Oxford |publisher=Pergamon |year=1994 |pages=573–576 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00034-1 |isbn=9780080448541}}</ref> Each place has its favorite trend that depends on the most common use of the village and on the personal preferences of each whistler. Whistling with a leaf or a flute is often related to courtship or poetic expression (reported in the Kickapoo language in Mexico<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ritzenthaler |first1=Robert E. |last2=Peterson |first2=Frederick A. |title=Courtship Whistling of the Mexican Kickapoo Indians |journal=American Anthropologist |date=December 1954 |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=1088–1089 |doi=10.1525/aa.1954.56.6.02a00110 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and in the Hmong<ref name=a2>{{cite journal |last1=G |first1=Busnel R. |last2=Alcuri |first2=G. |last3=Gautheron |first3=B. |last4=Rialland |first4=A. |title=Sur quelques aspects physiques de la langue à ton sifflée du peuple H'mong |trans-title=On some physical aspects of the hissed language of the H'mong people |language=fr |journal=Cahiers de l'Asie du Sud-Est |date=1989 |volume=26 |pages=39–52 |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00184975}}</ref> and Akha<ref name=a1>Meyer J & Dentel L (2003). 'The world whistles: scientific expedition and international network of cultural collaborations on the theme of whistled languages and talking musical instruments.'{{vs|date=November 2020}}</ref> cultures in Asia).

==== Physics ====
"All whistled languages share one basic characteristic: they function by varying the [[frequency]] of a simple [[waveform|wave-form]] as a [[Function (mathematics)|function]] of time, generally with minimal [[Dynamics (music)|dynamic variations]], which is readily understandable since in most cases their only purpose is long-distance communication."<ref name=Busnel1976/> A whistled tone is essentially a simple oscillation (or [[sine wave]]), and thus [[Timbre|timbral]] variations are impossible. Normal articulation during an ordinary lip-whistle is relatively easy though the lips move little causing a constant of [[labialization]] and making [[labial consonant|labial]] and [[labiodental consonant]]s (p, b, m, f, etc.) problematical.<ref name=Busnel1976/>

=== Comparison with spoken languages ===

==== Limited expressivity ====
The expressivity of whistled speech is likely to be somewhat limited compared to spoken speech (although not inherently so), but such a conclusion should not be taken as absolute, as it depends heavily on various factors including the [[phonology]] of the language. For example, in some tonal languages with few tones, whistled messages typically consist of stereotyped or otherwise standardized expressions, are elaborately descriptive, and often have to be repeated. However, in heavily tonal languages such as [[Mazatecan languages|Mazatec]] and [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], a large amount of information is conveyed through pitch even when spoken, and therefore extensive conversations may be whistled. In any case, even for non-tonal languages, measurements indicate that high intelligibility can be achieved with whistled speech (90%) of intelligibility of non-standardized sentences for Greek<ref name=Meyer2005/> and the equivalent for Turkish.<ref name=Busnel1970>{{cite journal |last1=Busnel |first1=R. G. |year=1970 |title=Recherches experimentales sur la langue sifflee de Kuskoy |trans-title=Experimental Research on the Whistling Language of Kuskoy |language=fr |journal=Revue de Phonétique Appliquée |volume=14-15 |pages=41–75, 70 |id={{ERIC|EJ041036}} |s2cid=193025497}}</ref>

==== Lack of comprehension ====
The [[Language comprehension|lack of understanding]] can be seen with a [[confusion matrix]]. It was tested using two speakers of Silbo (Jampolsky 1999). The study revealed that generally, the vowels were relatively easy to understand, and the consonants a bit more difficult.<ref name=Rialland2005/>

; Confusion matrix of the vowels in the perception test. 'Produced' vowels are displayed horizontally and 'perceived' vowels vertically (Numbers in bold correspond to correct identifications).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! {{diagonal split header|<br />Produced|&nbsp; Perceived}}
! style="width:2em;"|i
! style="width:2em;"|e
! style="width:2em;"|a
! style="width:2em;"|o
! style="width:2em;"|u
|-
! i
| '''15''' ||  || 1 ||  || 
|-
! e
| 1 ||  || 1 ||  || 
|-
! a
| ||  || '''79''' || 5 || 
|-
! o
| ||  || 4 || '''15''' || 3
|-
! u
| ||  ||  || 2 || '''2'''
|}

; Confusion matrix of the consonants in the perception test. 'Produced' consonants are displayed horizontally and 'perceived' consonants vertically. (Numbers in bold correspond to correct identifications).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! {{diagonal split header|<br />Produced|&nbsp; Perceived}}
! style="width:2em;"|p
! style="width:2em;"|β
! style="width:2em;"|f
! style="width:2em;"|m
! style="width:2em;"|t
! style="width:2em;"|ð
! style="width:2em;"|n
! style="width:2em;"|s
! style="width:2em;"|t͡ʃ
! style="width:2em;"|l
! style="width:2em;"|r
! style="width:2em;"|rr
! style="width:2em;"|j
! style="width:2em;"|ɲ
! style="width:2em;"|k
! style="width:2em;"|ɣ
|-
! p
| '''7''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! β
|  || '''3''' || 1 || 1 ||  ||  ||  || ||  ||  ||  || 1 ||  ||  ||  || 4
|-
! f
|  || 1 ||  ||  || 1 ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! m
|  ||  ||  || '''3''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! t
| 1 ||  ||  ||  || '''11''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 1||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! ð
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''1''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! n
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''4''' ||  ||  || 1 ||  || 2 ||  || 1 ||  || 
|-
! s
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''2''' || 1 || 1 ||  ||  ||  ||  || || 
|-
! t͡ʃ
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! l
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! r
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! rr
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! j
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 1 ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''3''' ||  ||  || 1
|-
! ɲ
|  ||  ||  ||  || 1 ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! k
| 1 ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''3''' || 
|-
! ɣ
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''2'''
|}