Editing Wicked problem (section)

== Related concepts ==

=== {{anchor|Social mess}}Messes and social messes ===
[[Russell Ackoff|Russell L. Ackoff]] wrote about complex problems as messes: "Every problem interacts with other problems and is therefore part of a set of interrelated problems, a system of problems.... I choose to call such a system a mess."{{sfn|Ackoff|1974}}

Extending Ackoff, [[Robert E. Horn|Robert Horn]] says that "a Social Mess is a set of interrelated problems and other messes. Complexity—systems of systems—is among the factors that makes Social Messes so resistant to analysis and, more importantly, to resolution."

According to Horn, the defining characteristics of a social mess are:{{sfn|Horn|Weber|2007}}
# No unique "correct" view of the problem;
# Different views of the problem and contradictory solutions;
# Most problems are connected to other problems;
# Data are often uncertain or missing;
# Multiple value conflicts;
# [[Ideological]] and cultural constraints;
# Political constraints;
# Economic constraints;
# Often a-logical or illogical or multi-valued thinking;
# Numerous possible intervention points;
# Consequences difficult to imagine;
# Considerable uncertainty, ambiguity;
# Great resistance to change; and,
# Problem solver(s) out of contact with the problems and potential solutions.

=== Divergent and convergent problems ===
[[E. F. Schumacher]] distinguishes between ''divergent and convergent problems'' in his book ''[[A Guide for the Perplexed]]''. Convergent problems are those for which attempted solutions gradually converge on one solution or answer. Divergent problems are those for which different answers appear to increasingly contradict each other all the more they are elaborated, requiring a different approach involving faculties of a higher order like love and empathy.

=== Wicked problems in software development ===
In 1990, DeGrace and Stahl introduced the concept of wicked problems to [[software development]].{{sfn|DeGrace|Stahl|1990}} In the last decade{{when|date=December 2022}}, other [[computer scientist]]s{{sfn|Conklin|2003b}}{{sfn|Sølvberg|Kung|1993}} have pointed out that software development shares many properties with other [[design]] practices (particularly that people-, [[business process|process]]-, and [[technology]]-problems have to be considered equally), and have incorporated Rittel's concepts into their [[software design]] methodologies. The design and integration of complex software-defined services that use the Web ([[web services]]) can be construed as an evolution from previous models of software design, and therefore becomes a wicked problem also.

=== Super wicked problems ===
{{anchor|Super wicked problem}}
Kelly Levin, Benjamin Cashore, Graeme Auld and Steven Bernstein introduced the distinction between "wicked problems" and "super wicked problems" in a 2007 conference paper, which was followed by a 2012 journal article in ''[[Policy Sciences]]''. In their discussion of [[Global warming|global climate change]], they define super wicked problems as having the following additional characteristics:{{sfn|Levin|Cashore|Bernstein|Auld|2012}}

# There is a significant time deadline on finding the solution
# There is no central authority dedicated to finding a solution
# Those seeking to solve the problem are also causing it
# Certain policies irrationally impede future progress

While the items that define a wicked problem relate to the problem itself, the items that define a super wicked problem relate to the agent trying to solve it. Global warming is a super wicked problem, and the need to intervene to tend to our longer term interests has also been taken up by others, including [[Richard Lazarus (law professor)|Richard Lazarus]].{{sfn|Lazarus|2009}}