Editing Xenophobia (section)

=== Americas ===
{{Main|Racism in North America|Racism in South America}}

==== Brazil ====
{{Main|Racism in Brazil|Racial democracy}}
Despite the majority of the country's population being of mixed ([[Pardo]]), African, or indigenous heritage, depictions of non-European Brazilians on the programming of most national television networks is scarce and typically relegated for musicians/their shows. In the case of [[telenovela]]s, Brazilians of [[dark skin|darker skin]] tone are typically depicted as housekeepers or in positions of lower socioeconomic standing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://isc.temple.edu/evanson/brazilhistory/Bahia.htm |title=Instructional Support Center |access-date=17 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121024219/http://isc.temple.edu/evanson/brazilhistory/Bahia.htm |archive-date=21 November 2011 }}</ref><ref>Rosana Barbosa, ''Immigration and xenophobia: Portuguese immigrants in early 19th century Rio de Janeiro'' (U Press of America, 2008).</ref><ref>Rosana Barbosa Nunes, "Immigration, xenophobia and the whitening of the Brazilian population." ''Journal of Transatlantic Studies'' 2.1 (2004): 59–74.</ref>

==== Canada ====
{{main|Racism in Canada}}{{See also|Anti-Quebec sentiment}}
[[Islam in Canada|Muslim]] and [[Sikhism in Canada|Sikh Canadians]] have faced racism and discrimination in recent years, especially since the 2001 terrorist attacks on the U.S. and the spillover effect of the United States' [[War on Terror]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2011/09/11/911-muslim-women-discrimination_n_957305.html |title=9/11: Women In The Fight Against Discrimination |website=HuffPost |date=11 September 2011 |access-date=6 December 2016}}</ref><ref name=":0">Heribert Adam, and Kogila Moodley, eds. ''Imagined liberation: Xenophobia, citizenship and identity in South Africa, Germany and Canada'' (African Sun Media, 2015). [https://books.google.com/books?id=SGb6AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 online]</ref> An increase in hate crimes targeting [[Ontario]] Muslims was reported after [[ISIS]] took responsibility for the [[November 2015 Paris attacks]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 November 2015 |title=6 anti-Muslim incidents in Ontario since Paris attacks |publisher=[[CBC News]] |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/hate-crimes-ontario-paris-attacks-1.3328660 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220508034817/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/hate-crimes-ontario-paris-attacks-1.3328660 |archive-date=8 May 2022 |access-date=8 May 2022 }}</ref>

A 2016 survey from The Environics Institute, which was a follow-up to a study conducted 10 years prior, found that there may be discriminating attitudes that may be a residual of the effects of the [[September 11 attacks|11 September 2001 attacks]] in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Environics Institute: Survey of Muslims in Canada |url=http://www.environicsinstitute.org/uploads/institute-projects/survey%20of%20muslims%20in%20canada%202016%20-%20final%20report.pdf |publisher=The Environics Institute |access-date=4 March 2017}}</ref> A poll in 2009 by ''[[Maclean's]]'' revealed that 28% of Canadians viewed [[Islam]] favourably, and 30% viewed the Sikh religion favourably. 45% of respondents believed Islam encourages violence. In [[Quebec]] in particular, only 17% of respondents had a favourable view of Islam.<ref name="macleans.ca">{{cite web |last=Geddes |first=John |title=What Canadians think of Sikhs, Jews, Christians, Muslims . . . |website=Maclean's |date=28 April 2009 |url=https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/what-canadians-think-of-sikhs-jews-christians-muslims/ |access-date=11 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612152407/https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/what-canadians-think-of-sikhs-jews-christians-muslims/ |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Colombia====

According to the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]], by June 2019, 1.3&nbsp;million of the 4 million [[Venezuelan refugee crisis|Venezuelan refugees]] were in [[Colombia]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.unhcr.org/news/press/2019/6/5cfa2a4a4/refugees-migrants-venezuela-top-4-million-unhcr-iom.html|title=Refugees and migrants from Venezuela top 4 million: UNHCR and IOM|newspaper=Unhcr |publisher=United Nations High Commissioner|date=7 June 2019|access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> Because of their urgent situation, many migrants from Venezuela crossed the border illegally, indicating they had few opportunities to gain "access to legal and other rights or basic services and are exposed to exploitation, abuse, manipulation and a wide range of other protection risks, including racism, discrimination and xenophobia".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://reporting.unhcr.org/node/20393|title=Venezuela Situation 2018 Supplementary Appeal {{!}} Global Focus|publisher=UN Refugee Agency|date=1 December 2018|access-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204092433/http://reporting.unhcr.org/node/20393|archive-date=4 December 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Since the start of the migrant crisis, media outlets and state officials have raised concerns about increasing discrimination against migrants in the country, especially xenophobia and violence against the migrants.<ref>{{cite news |title=Venezuelans brave torrential border river, face exploitation, abuse – UN urges greater protection |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/04/1036181 |access-date=15 June 2019 |work=UN News |date=5 April 2019}}</ref>

==== Guyana ====
There have been racial tension between the [[Indo-Guyanese]] people and the [[Afro-Guyanese]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2005/09/050920_guyana_race.shtml |title=BBCCaribbean.com – News – Guyana turns attention to racism |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guyana.org/features/conflicts_indiansandblacks.html |title=Conflict between East Indians and Blacks |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="wordpress.com">{{cite web |url=http://barbadosunderground.wordpress.com/2008/01/31/indian-racism-against-afro-guyanese-in-guyana/ |title=Indian Racism Against Afro Guyanese In Guyana |work=Barbados Underground |date=31 January 2008 |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref>

==== Mexico ====
{{Main|Racism in Mexico|The Chinese in Mexico|Chinese immigration to Mexico}}
Racism in Mexico has a long history.<ref>"[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CEEDF1330F932A25755C0A963958260&sec=&spon= The World; Racism? Mexico's in Denial.]", ''The New York Times'', 11 June 1995</ref> Historically, Mexicans with light skin tones had absolute control over dark skinned Amerindians due to the structure of the Spanish colonial caste system. When a Mexican of a darker-skinned tone marries one of a lighter skinned-tone, it is common for them say that they are 'making the race better' (''mejorando la raza'')". This can be interpreted as a self-attack on their ethnicity.<ref>"[http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/article_2081.shtml Racism in Mexico?]", The Final Call, 23 June 2005</ref> Despite improving economic and social conditions of indigenous Mexicans, discrimination against them continues to this day and there are few laws to protect indigenous Mexicans from discrimination. Violent attacks against indigenous Mexicans are moderately common and many times go unpunished.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.proceso.com.mx/?p=294476 |title=Empresario agrede a valet parking, se ampara y evita la cárcel |author=La Redacción |work=Proceso |access-date=12 December 2017 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924104809/http://www.proceso.com.mx/?p=294476 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 15 March 1911, a band of [[List of factions in the Mexican Revolution|Maderista]] soldiers entered [[Torreón|Torreón, Mexico]], and [[Torreón massacre|massacred 303 Chinese and five Japanese]]. Historian Larissa Schwartz argues that [[Kang Youwei]] had successfully organized the prosperous Chinese businessmen there, making them a visible target for class antagonism made extreme by xenophobia.<ref>Larissa N. Schwartz, "The Inconveniences Resulting from Race Mixture: The Torreon Massacre of 1911." ''Chinese America: History and Perspectives'' (1998): 57–65.</ref>

The Chinese were easy to identify in northern cities and were frequent targets especially in Sonora in the 1930s. Systematic persecution resulted from economic, political, and psychological fears of the Chinese, and the government showed little interest in protecting them.<ref>Charles C. Cumberland, "The Sonora Chinese and the Mexican Revolution." ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 40.2 (1960): 191–211 [https://read.dukeupress.edu/hahr/article-pdf/40/2/191/776093/0400191.pdf online].</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/phr.2010.79.1.50|jstor = 10.1525/phr.2010.79.1.50|doi = 10.1525/phr.2010.79.1.50|title = Chinos and Paisanos: Chinese Mexican Relations in the Borderlands|year = 2010|last1 = Lim|first1 = Julian|journal = Pacific Historical Review|volume = 79|issue = 1|pages = 50–85|url-access = subscription}}</ref>

Theresa Alfaro-Velcamp argues that the Porfiriato, 1876–1910 promoted immigration from the Middle East. However the revolution of 1910–20 saw a surge in xenophobia and nationalism based on "mestizaje." The community divided into the economically prosperous [[Lebanese Mexicans]] who took pride in a distinct Lebanese-Mexican identity, while the downscale remainder often merged into the mestizo community.<ref>Theresa Alfaro-Velcamp, . "Immigrant positioning in twentieth-century Mexico: middle easterners, foreign citizens, and multiculturalism." ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 86.1 (2006): 61–92.</ref>

Racism against indigenous people has been a current problem in Mexico.<ref>{{Cite AV media |title=🇲🇽 Ridicule of indigenous Oscar nod highlights racism in Mexico |date=19 March 2019 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sgBozq0Ir9A |type=News |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> Domestic workers, many of whom are indigenous women who have moved from rural villages to cities, often face discrimination including verbal, physical or sexual abuse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 November 2015 |title=Mexico City's domestic workers: a life being treated as a lesser person |url=http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/nov/10/mexico-city-domestic-workers-life-lesser-person |website=[[The Guardian]] |language=en}}</ref>

==== Panama ====
{{Further|Afro-Panamanians}}
Peter Szok argues that when the United States brought in large numbers of laborers from the Caribbean—called "[[Afro-Panamanians]]"—to build the [[Panama Canal]] (1905–1914), xenophobia emerged. The local elite in Panama felt its culture was threatened: they cried out, "La Patria es el Recuerdo." ("The Homeland is the Memory") and developed a Hispanophile elitist identity through an artistic literary movement known as "Hispanismo." Another result was the election of the "overtly nationalist and anti-imperialist" [[Arnulfo Arias]] as president in 1940.<ref>Peter Szok,  "'La Patria es el Recuerdo', Hispanophile Nationalism in Early Twentieth-Century Panama, 1903–1941." ''Journal of Caribbean History'' 31.1 (1997): 149–184.</ref>

==== Venezuela ====
In Venezuela, like other South American countries, economic inequality often breaks along ethnic and racial lines.<ref name=MapOfRacistCountries>{{cite news |last=Fisher |first=Max |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/05/15/a-fascinating-map-of-the-worlds-most-and-least-racially-tolerant-countries/ |title=Map shows world's 'most racist' countries |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=15 May 2013 |access-date=30 April 2017 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170430071325/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/05/15/a-fascinating-map-of-the-worlds-most-and-least-racially-tolerant-countries/ |archive-date=30 April 2017 }}</ref> A 2013 Swedish academic study stated that Venezuela was the most racist country in the Americas,<ref name=MapOfRacistCountries /> followed by the [[Dominican Republic]].<ref name=MapOfRacistCountries />

==== United States ====
{{Main|Xenophobia in the United States}}
 
In a 2010 report, a network of more than 300 US-based [[Civil and political rights|civil rights]] and [[human rights]] organizations stated that "[[Discrimination in the United States|Discrimination]] permeates all aspects of life in the United States, and it extends to all [[Person of color|communities of color]]."<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2010|title=Factbox: U.S. report to U.N. Human Rights Council|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-rights-factbox/factbox-u-s-report-to-u-n-human-rights-council-idUSTRE6A41WI20101105|work=Reuters}}</ref> Discrimination against racial, ethnic, and religious minorities is widely acknowledged, especially in the case of African Americans and African Diasporic peoples in the United States, as well as other ethnic groups.

Members of every major American ethnic and religious minority group have perceived discrimination in their dealings with members of other minority racial and religious groups. Philosopher [[Cornel West]] has argued that "racism is an integral element within the very fabric of American culture and society. It is embedded in the country's first collective definition, enunciated in its subsequent laws, and imbued in its dominant way of life."<ref>{{cite book |last1=West |first1=Cornel |title=Prophesy Deliverance!: An Afro-American Revolutionary Christianity |date=2002 |page=116}}</ref>

A 2019 survey by the [[Pew Research Center]] suggested that 76% of black and Asian respondents had experienced some form of discrimination, at least from time to time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2019/04/09/race-in-america-2019/|title=Views on Race in America 2019 (Section titled 'Majorities of blacks, Hispanics and Asians say they have experienced discrimination because of their race or ethnicity')|date=9 April 2019|website=Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project|language=en-US|access-date=13 December 2019}}</ref> Studies which have been conducted by the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|''PNAS'']] and [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']] have found that during traffic stops, officers spoke to black men in a less respectful tone than they spoke to white men and those same studies have also found that black drivers are more likely to be pulled over and searched by police than white drivers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amina Khan |date=16 July 2021 |title=Police officers treat Black and white men differently. You can hear it in their tone of voice |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/health/wellness/police-officers-treat-black-and-white-men-differently-you-can-hear-it-in-their-tone-of-voice/ar-AAMdX4h |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220508032616/https://www.msn.com/en-us/health/wellness/police-officers-treat-black-and-white-men-differently-you-can-hear-it-in-their-tone-of-voice/ar-AAMdX4h?ocid=msedgntp%23comments |archive-date=8 May 2022 |website=[[Microsoft News]], [[Los Angeles Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=8 May 2022 |url-status=live }}</ref> Black people are also reportedly overrepresented as criminals in the media.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 October 2021 |title=Despite skewed media image, Black men are more likely to be victimized than other groups |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/opinion/despite-skewed-media-image-black-men-are-more-likely-to-be-victimized-than-other-groups/ar-AAP8sL7 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211009050001/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/opinion/despite-skewed-media-image-black-men-are-more-likely-to-be-victimized-than-other-groups/ar-AAP8sL7?ocid=msedgntp%23comments |archive-date=9 October 2021 |website=[[MSN News]], [[USA Today]] |language=en-US |access-date=8 May 2022 }}</ref> In 2020 the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19]] epidemic was often blamed on China, leading to attacks on Chinese Americans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gover |first1=Angela R. |last2=Harper |first2=Shannon B. |last3=Langton |first3=Lynn |date=2020 |title=Anti-Asian Hate Crime During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Exploring the Reproduction of Inequality |journal=American Journal of Criminal Justice |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=647–667 |doi=10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1 |issn=1066-2316 |pmc=7364747 |pmid=32837171}}</ref> This represents a continuation of xenophobic attacks on Chinese Americans for 150 years.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.jvir.2020.04.020 | title=Xenophobia in America in the Age of Coronavirus and Beyond | year=2020 | last1=Huang | first1=Junjian | last2=Liu | first2=Raymond | journal=Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology | volume=31 | issue=7 | pages=1187–1188 | pmid=32522506 | pmc=7188638 }}</ref>