Editing Amazon rainforest (section)

==Deforestation==
{{Main|Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest}}
{{See also|Trans-Amazonian Highway|Trans-Amazonian Railway}}
{{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | total_width = 700
|image1= Amazon Rainforest, Brazil Timelapse 1984-2018.gif | caption1= Timelapse of the deforestation 1984–2018 (bottom right)
|image2= Operação Hymenaea, Julho-2016 (29399454651).jpg| caption2= Deforestation in the [[Maranhão]] state of Brazil, 2016
|image3= Terra Indígena Porquinhos, Maranhão (38928905194).jpg| caption3= Wildfires in Brazil's [[Indigenous territory (Brazil)|indigenous territory]], 2017
}}
[[File:2021 Top ten countries for tropical primary forest loss - World Resources Institute.svg |thumb| Home to much of the Amazon rainforest, Brazil's tropical [[Old-growth forest|primary (old-growth)]] [[forest loss]] greatly exceeds that of other countries.<ref name=WRI_20240404>● 2021 data: {{cite web|title=Forest Pulse: The Latest on the World's Forests|url=https://research.wri.org/gfr/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends |website=WRI.org |publisher=World Resources Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627150528/https://research.wri.org/gfr/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends|archive-date=27 June 2023 |date=June 2023 |url-status=live}}<br>● 2022 and 2023 data: {{cite web |title=Forest Pulse: The Latest on the World's Forests |url=https://research.wri.org/gfr/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends |publisher=World Resources Institute / Global Forest Review |website=WRI.org |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240404205336/https://research.wri.org/gfr/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends |archive-date=4 April 2024 |date=4 April 2024 |url-status=live}}<br>● 2024 data: {{cite web |last1=Goldman |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Carter |first2=Sarah |last3=Sims |first3=Michelle |title=Fires Drove Record-breaking Tropical Forest Loss in 2024 |url=https://gfr.wri.org/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends |publisher=World Resources Institute |archive-url=https://archive.ph/TKXVm |archive-date=26 May 2025 |date=21 May 2025 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
[[File:20220910 Amazon deforestation and degradation, by country - Amazon Watch.svg|thumb|Overall, 20% of the Amazon rainforest has been "transformed" (deforested) and another 6% has been "highly degraded", causing Amazon Watch to warn that the Amazonia is in the midst of a tipping point crisis.<ref name=AmazonWatch_202209>{{cite web |title=Amazon Against the Clock: A Regional Assessment on Where and How to Protect 80% by 2025 |url=https://amazonwatch.org/assets/files/2022-amazonia-against-the-clock-executive-summary.pdf |website=Amazon Watch |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910025229/https://amazonwatch.org/assets/files/2022-amazonia-against-the-clock-executive-summary.pdf |archive-date=September 10, 2022 |page=8 |date=September 2022 |quote=Graphic 2: Current State of the Amazon by country, by percentage / Source: RAISG (Red Amazónica de Información Socioambiental Georreferenciada) Elaborated by authors. |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

[[Deforestation]] is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested areas. The main sources of deforestation in the Amazon are human settlement and the development of the land.<ref>{{cite book
 | author=Various
 | editor1=Bierregaard, Richard
 | editor2=Gascon, Claude
 | editor3=Lovejoy, Thomas E.
 | editor4=Mesquita, Rita
 | title=Lessons from Amazonia: The Ecology and Conservation of a Fragmented Forest
 | year=2001
 | publisher=Yale University Press
 | isbn=978-0-300-08483-2
 | url-access=registration
 | url=https://archive.org/details/lessonsfromamazo0000unse
 }}</ref> In 2022, about 20% of the Amazon rainforest has already been deforested and a further 6% was "highly degraded".<ref name="Tandon-2023">{{Cite web |last=Tandon |first=Ayesha |date=October 4, 2023 |title=Drying of Amazon could be early warning of 'tipping point' for the rainforest |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/drying-of-amazon-could-be-early-warning-of-tipping-point-for-the-rainforest/ |access-date=October 6, 2023 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}}</ref> Research suggests that upon reaching about 20–25% (hence 0–5% more), the [[Tipping points in the climate system|tipping point]] to flip it into a non-forest ecosystem – degraded [[savannah]] – (in eastern, southern and central Amazonia) will be reached.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.euronews.com/2018/02/22/amazon-rainforest-heading-to-point-of-no-return-| title = Amazon Rainforest 'heading to point of no return'| date = February 22, 2018| access-date = July 6, 2019| archive-date = September 22, 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200922111422/https://www.euronews.com/2018/02/22/amazon-rainforest-heading-to-point-of-no-return-| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| title = Amazon Tipping Point| year = 2018| doi = 10.1126/sciadv.aat2340| last1 = Lovejoy| first1 = Thomas E.| last2 = Nobre| first2 = Carlos| journal = Science Advances| volume = 4| issue = 2| pages = eaat2340| pmid = 29492460| pmc = 5821491| bibcode = 2018SciA....4.2340L}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bochow |first1=Nils |last2=Boers |first2=Niklas |date=October 6, 2023 |title=The South American monsoon approaches a critical transition in response to deforestation |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=9 |issue=40 |pages=eadd9973 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.add9973 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=10550231 |pmid=37792950|bibcode=2023SciA....9D9973B }}</ref> This process of savanisation would take decades to take full effect.<ref name="Tandon-2023" />

Prior to the early 1960s, access to the forest's interior was highly restricted, and the forest remained basically intact.<ref name="Kirbyetal-2006">{{cite journal |author1=Kirby, Kathryn R. |author2=Laurance, William F. |author3=Albernaz, Ana K. |author4=Schroth, Götz |author5=Fearnside, Philip M. |author6=Bergen, Scott |author7=M. Venticinque, Eduardo |author8=Costa, Carlos da |title=The future of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon |journal=Futures |year=2006 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=432–453 |doi=10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.011 |url=http://philip.inpa.gov.br/publ_livres/Preprints/2006/Futures-Amazon.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.573.1317 |access-date=October 27, 2017 |archive-date=July 22, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722043255/http://philip.inpa.gov.br/publ_livres/Preprints/2006/Futures-Amazon.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Farms established during the 1960s were based on crop cultivation and the [[slash and burn]] method. However, the colonists were unable to manage their fields and the crops because of the loss of [[soil fertility]] and weed invasion.<ref name=watkins_griffiths>Watkins and Griffiths, J. (2000). Forest Destruction and Sustainable Agriculture in the Brazilian Amazon: a Literature Review (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Reading, 2000). Dissertation Abstracts International, 15–17</ref> The soils in the Amazon are productive for just a short period of time, so farmers are constantly moving to new areas and clearing more land.<ref name=watkins_griffiths /> These farming practices led to deforestation and caused extensive environmental damage.<ref>{{cite book
 | first=M. | last=Williams | author-link=Michael Williams (geographer) | year=2006
 | title=Deforesting the Earth: From Prehistory to Global Crisis
 | publisher=The University of Chicago Press
 | edition=Abridged
 | location=Chicago | isbn=978-0-226-89947-3}}</ref> Deforestation is considerable, and areas cleared of forest are visible to the naked eye from outer space.

In the 1970s, construction began on the [[Trans-Amazonian highway]]. This highway represented a major threat to the Amazon rainforest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kanat.jsc.vsc.edu/student/lind/main.htm|title=Impacts and Causes of Deforestation in the Amazon Basin|website=kanat.jsc.vsc.edu|access-date=March 6, 2013|archive-date=June 15, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615075208/http://kanat.jsc.vsc.edu/student/lind/main.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The highway still has not been completed, limiting the environmental damage.

Between 1991 and 2000, the total area of forest lost in the Amazon rose from {{convert|415000|to|587000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, with most of the lost forest becoming pasture for cattle.<ref name=CIFOR2004>Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) (2004)</ref> Seventy percent of formerly forested land in the Amazon, and 91% of land deforested since 1970, have been used for livestock [[ranch|pasture]].<ref>{{cite book
 | author1=Steinfeld, Henning |author2=Gerber, Pierre |author3=Wassenaar, T.D. |author4=Castel, Vincent | year=2006 | access-date=August 19, 2008
| url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.htm
 | title=Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options
 | publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
 | isbn=978-92-5-105571-7 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080726214204/http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.htm| archive-date= July 26, 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
 | last=Margulis | first=Sergio | year=2004
 | title=Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon
 | series=World Bank Working Paper No. 22
 | publisher=The World Bank
 | location=Washington, DC | isbn=978-0-8213-5691-3
 | url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/02/02/000090341_20040202130625/Rendered/PDF/277150PAPER0wbwp0no1022.pdf
 | access-date=September 4, 2008
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080910042549/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/02/02/000090341_20040202130625/Rendered/PDF/277150PAPER0wbwp0no1022.pdf| archive-date= September 10, 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| url-status=live}}</ref> Currently, Brazil is the largest global producer of [[soybean]]s. New research however, conducted by Leydimere Oliveira et al., has shown that the more rainforest is logged in the Amazon, the less precipitation reaches the area and so the lower the yield per hectare becomes. So despite the popular perception, there has been no economical advantage for Brazil from logging rainforest zones and converting these to pastoral fields.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.whrc.org/news/pressroom/PR-2013-Coe-IOP-ERL_No-win_situation_for_agricultural_expansion_in_the_Amazon.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130803160638/http://www.whrc.org/news/pressroom/PR-2013-Coe-IOP-ERL_No-win_situation_for_agricultural_expansion_in_the_Amazon.html|url-status=dead|title=Research paper of Leydimere Oliveira on the amazon|archive-date=August 3, 2013}}</ref>
[[File:Indian protesters from Vale do Javarí in Belém 2009 1530FP8886.jpg|thumb|Indigenous protesters from [[Vale do Javari]]]]
The needs of soy farmers have been used to justify many of the controversial transportation projects that are currently developing in the Amazon. The first two highways successfully opened up the rainforest and led to increased settlement and deforestation. The mean annual deforestation rate from 2000 to 2005 ({{convert|22392|km2|sqmi|disp=or|abbr=on}} per year) was 18% higher than in the previous five years ({{convert|19018|km2|sqmi|disp=or|abbr=on}} per year).<ref>Barreto, P.; Souza Jr. C.; Noguerón, R.; Anderson, A. & Salomão, R. 2006. [http://www.imazon.org.br/publicacoes/publicacao.asp?id=357 ''Human Pressure on the Brazilian Amazon Forests'']{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. [[Imazon]]. Retrieved September 28, 2006.  (The [http://www.imazon.org.br/ Imazon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040901054620/http://www.imazon.org.br/ |date=September 1, 2004 }} web site contains many resources relating to the Brazilian Amazonia.)</ref> Although deforestation declined significantly in the Brazilian Amazon between 2004 and 2014, there has been an increase to the present day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.obt.inpe.br/prodes/prodes_1988_2009.htm|title=INPE: Estimativas Anuais desde 1988 até 2009|work=inpe.br|access-date=November 3, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130124244/http://www.obt.inpe.br/prodes/prodes_1988_2009.htm|archive-date=November 30, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:THE BIG MINE IN AMAZON RAINFOREST BRAZIL - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Brazilian mining operation in the Amazon Rainforest.]]
Brazil's President, Jair Bolsonaro, has supported the relaxation of regulations placed on agricultural land. He has used his time in office to allow for more deforestation and more exploitation of the Amazon's rich natural resources. Deforestation reached a 15 year high in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Diana |first1=Roy |title=Deforestation of Brazil's Amazon Has Reached a Record High. What's Being Done? |url=https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/deforestation-brazils-amazon-has-reached-record-high-whats-being-done#:~:text=Large-scale%20deforestation%20of%20the%20Amazon%20began%20in%20the,pushed%20to%20open%20Indigenous%20lands%20to%20commercial%20exploitation. |access-date=2 November 2024}}</ref>

Since the discovery of [[fossil fuel]] reservoirs in the Amazon rainforest, oil drilling activity has steadily increased, peaking in the Western Amazon in the 1970s and ushering another drilling boom in the 2000s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/46319-oil-drilling-contaminated-amazon.html|title=Oil Drilling Contaminated Western Amazon|work=livesciences.com|date=June 13, 2014|access-date=February 17, 2019|archive-date=February 18, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218081842/https://www.livescience.com/46319-oil-drilling-contaminated-amazon.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Oil companies have to set up their operations by opening new roads through the forests, which often contributes to deforestation in the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwf.panda.org/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/amazon/amazon_threats/other_threats/oil_and_gas_extraction_amazon/|title=Oil and Gas Extraction in the Amazon|work=wwf.panda.org|access-date=February 17, 2019|archive-date=February 18, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218021157/http://wwf.panda.org/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/amazon/amazon_threats/other_threats/oil_and_gas_extraction_amazon/|url-status=live}}</ref> 9.4% of the territory of the Amazon is affected by oil fields.<ref name=Mongabay>{{cite web |last1=Sierra Praeli |first1=Yvette |title=The Amazon will reach tipping point if current trend of deforestation continues |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/10/the-amazon-will-reach-tipping-point-if-current-trend-of-deforestation-continues/ |website=Mongabay |date=October 3, 2022 |publisher=Amazon Network of Georeferenced Socio-Environmental Information (RAISG) |access-date=22 August 2024}}</ref>

Mining is also a major driver of deforestation. 17% of the area of the Amazon Rainforest is affected by mining.<ref name=Mongabay/>

The transition to solar and wind energy, digitalization, raised the demand for [[cassiterite]] (the main ore of [[tin]] used also for financing [[Gold mining in Brazil|gold mining]]), [[manganese]] and [[copper]], which attracrted many illegal miners to the Amazon. This led to deforestation, different environmental and social problems. Hydropower also creates significant problems in the Amazon. Such activities are defined by the [[World Rainforest Movement]] as "[[Green extractivism]]".<ref>{{cite web |title=How different forms of 'green' extractivism are causing the destruction of the Amazon forest |url=https://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin-articles/how-different-forms-of-green-extractivism-are-causing-the-destruction-of-the-amazon-forest |website=World Rainforest Movement |access-date=20 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Cowie |first1=Sam |title=The lawless mining gangs targeting the Amazon's precious green energy minerals |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/article/2024/aug/02/black-gold-cassiterite-mining-energy-transition-minerals-destroying-indigenous-yanomami-rainforest-ibama-environment |access-date=20 August 2024 |agency=The Guardian |date=2 August 2024}}</ref>

The [[European Union–Mercosur free trade agreement]], which would form one of the world's largest free trade areas, has been denounced by environmental activists and indigenous rights campaigners.<ref>{{cite news |title=EU urged to halt trade talks with S. America over Brazil abuses |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190618-eu-urged-halt-trade-talks-with-america-over-brazil-abuses |work=France 24 |date=June 18, 2019 |access-date=August 25, 2019 |archive-date=August 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825102307/https://www.france24.com/en/20190618-eu-urged-halt-trade-talks-with-america-over-brazil-abuses |url-status=live }}</ref> The fear is that the deal could lead to more deforestation of the Amazon rainforest as it expands market access to Brazilian beef.<ref>{{cite web |title=We must not barter the Amazon rainforest for burgers and steaks |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/commentisfree/2019/jul/02/barter-amazon-rainforest-burgers-steaks-brazil |work=The Guardian |date=July 2, 2019 |access-date=August 25, 2019 |archive-date=August 24, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824153649/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/commentisfree/2019/jul/02/barter-amazon-rainforest-burgers-steaks-brazil |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to a November 2021 report by Brazil's [[National Institute for Space Research|INPE]], based on [[Earth observation satellite#Environmental monitoring|satellite data]], deforestation has increased by 22% over 2020 and is at its highest level since 2006.<ref>{{cite news |title=Deforestation in Brazil's Amazon at highest level since 2006 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/18/deforestation-in-brazils-amazon-rises-by-more-than-a-fifth-in-a-year |work=Reuters/The Guardian |date=November 18, 2021 |language=en |access-date=July 3, 2022 |archive-date=November 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118231307/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/18/deforestation-in-brazils-amazon-rises-by-more-than-a-fifth-in-a-year |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Brazil: Amazon sees worst deforestation levels in 15 years |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-59341770 |work=BBC News |date=November 19, 2021 |access-date=July 3, 2022 |archive-date=July 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715165313/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-59341770 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===2019 fires===
{{main|2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires}}
There were 72,843 fires in Brazil in 2019, with more than half within the Amazon region.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-49415973 |title='Record number of fires' in Brazilian rainforest |date=August 21, 2019 |access-date=August 21, 2019 |work=[[BBC News Online]] |publisher=[[BBC Online]] |agency=[[BBC]] |archive-date=August 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822055410/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-49415973 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/08/21/americas/amazon-rainforest-fire-intl-hnk-trnd/index.html |title=Brazil's Amazon rainforest is burning at a record rate |work=[[CNN]] |first1=Jessie |last1=Yeung |first2=Abel |last2=Alvarado |access-date=August 21, 2019 |date=August 21, 2019 |publisher=[[Turner Broadcasting System, Inc.]] |archive-date=August 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814134335/https://www.cnn.com/2019/08/21/americas/amazon-rainforest-fire-intl-hnk-trnd/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/amazon-wildfire-parts-of-amazon-rainforest-on-fire-smoke-seen-from-space-2019-08-20/ |title=Parts of the Amazon rainforest are on fire – and smoke can be spotted from space |work=[[cbsnews.com]] |access-date=August 21, 2019 |first=Danielle |last=Garrand |date=August 20, 2019 |publisher=[[CBS Interactive Inc.]] |archive-date=August 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827103001/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/amazon-wildfire-parts-of-amazon-rainforest-on-fire-smoke-seen-from-space-2019-08-20/ |url-status=live }}</ref>  In August 2019 there were a record number of fires.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnbc.com/video/2019/08/21/amazon-rainforest-fires-record-rate.html |title=Record-breaking number of fires burn in Brazil's Amazon |date=August 21, 2019 |access-date=August 21, 2019 |work=[[CNBC]] |publisher=[[NBCUniversal]] |archive-date=July 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725050554/https://www.cnbc.com/video/2019/08/21/amazon-rainforest-fires-record-rate.html |url-status=live }}</ref>  [[Deforestation in Brazil|Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon]] rose more than 88% in June 2019 compared with the same month in 2018.<ref>{{cite news |title=Brazil registers huge spike in Amazon deforestation |url=https://www.dw.com/en/brazil-registers-huge-spike-in-amazon-deforestation/a-49462773 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=July 3, 2019 |access-date=August 22, 2019 |archive-date=July 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725065044/https://www.dw.com/en/brazil-registers-huge-spike-in-amazon-deforestation/a-49462773 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:DeforestationinBrazil2.jpg|NASA satellite observation of deforestation in the Mato Grosso state of Brazil. The transformation from forest to farm is evident by the paler square shaped areas under development.
File:Fires and Deforestation on the Amazon Frontier, Rondonia, Brazil - August 12, 2007.jpg|Fires and deforestation in the state of [[Rondônia]]
File:Fires and Deforestation on the Amazon Frontier, Rondonia, Brazil - September 30, 2007.jpg|One consequence of forest clearing in the Amazon: thick smoke that hangs over the forest
File:Deforestation of Rainforest.jpg|Impact of deforestation on natural habitat of trees
</gallery>The increased area of fire-impacted forest coincided with a relaxation of environmental regulations from the Brazilian government. Notably, before those regulations were put in place in 2008 the fire-impacted area was also larger compared to the regulation period of 2009–2018. As these fire continue to move closer to the heart of the Amazon basin, their impact on biodiversity will only increase in scale, as the cumulative fire-impacted area is correlated with the number of species impacted.<ref name="Feng-2021" />{{clear}}