Editing Artificial reef (section)

== Environmental concerns ==
Environmental concerns about artificial reefs include
possible physical damage to existing natural sites in the installation area;
their potential to disrupt existing patterns of marine life by introducing non-native species and by attracting fish, eggs and larvae from surrounding natural habitats;
their potential to concentrate fish in areas where it becomes easier to catch them,
leading to [[overfishing]] and long-term damage to fisheries;
and the potential for the materials used in artificial reefs to [[environmental degradation|degrade]] and cause damage to the natural habitat. This can include [[toxicity]] from contaminants such as [[paint]], [[oil]], and [[plastics]], as well as parts of the reef breaking away and becoming ocean waste or washing onto natural reefs and beaches.<ref name="Bracho-Villavicencio"/>

===Changing populations===
Many marine organisms exhibit a high degree of movement or dispersal.<ref name="Karnauskas"/> The fish attracted to artificial reef zones vary from reef to reef depending on the reef's age, size and structure.<ref name="Perkol">{{cite journal |last1=Perkol-Finkel |first1=S. |last2=Shashar |first2=N. |last3=Benayahu |first3=Y. |title=Can artificial reefs mimic natural reef communities? The roles of structural features and age |journal=Marine Environmental Research |date=1 March 2006 |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=121–135 |doi=10.1016/j.marenvres.2005.08.001 |pmid=16198411 |bibcode=2006MarER..61..121P |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0141113605000590 |issn=0141-1136|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  Preferred habitats vary both between and within species, depending on an organism's developmental stage and behavior. Environments that are well-suited to larval to juvenile stages may differ from those favored by adults. For example, 1–2 year old Red Snapper (''[[Lutjanus campechanus]]''), show a much higher attraction to living in vertical artificial reef structures than older Red Snapper. By ages 6–8, adults return to muddy and sand bottom habitats, which provide a home for the species' pelagic larval phase. Being aware of how organisms relate to the marine habitat is critical to mapping marine resources and understanding how artificial reefs affect marine processes.<ref name="Karnauskas"/>
The siting of artificial reefs should consider the presence of existing natural habitats and the needs of species at multiple developmental stages, including the need for reproductive and early stage habitat.<ref name="Ceccarelli"/><ref name="Karnauskas"/><ref name="Spinner"/>

The opportunistic use of [[shipwreck]]s and oil derricks<ref name="Bull">{{cite news |last1=Love |first1=Milton |last2=Bull |first2=Ann Scarborough |title=Retired oil rigs off the California coast could find new lives as artificial reefs {{!}} GreenBiz |url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/retired-oil-rigs-california-coast-could-find-new-lives-artificial-reefs |work=GreenBiz |date=May 17, 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="McKinney">{{cite news |last1=McKinney |first1=John |title=After the Oil Runs Out: Rigs to Reefs |url=https://psmag.com/environment/after-the-oil-runs-out-rigs-to-reefs-19272 |work=Pacific Standard |date=July 15, 2010 |language=en}}</ref> as artificial reefs creates a new [[Trophic level|trophic structure]] for the local [[ecosystem]]. The trophic structure of artificial and natural reefs has been shown to differ strongly.<ref name="Simon"/> Artificial reefs do not develop the same functions and diversity as natural reefs over time, unless their structure is similar to natural reefs.<ref name="Perkol"/> For example, the Sint Eustatius reef, nearly 200 years old, has developed a diverse and healthy ecosystem, but it has different and less abundant coral species than a nearby natural reef.<ref name="Urquhart">{{cite news |last1=Urquhart |first1=James |title=For Artificial Coral Reefs, Time Is Not Enough |url=https://hakaimagazine.com/news/for-artificial-coral-reefs-time-is-not-enough/ |work=Hakai Magazine |date=August 4, 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Hill">{{cite journal |last1=Hill |first1=Claudia E. L. |last2=Lymperaki |first2=Myrsini M. |last3=Hoeksema |first3=Bert W. |title=A centuries-old manmade reef in the Caribbean does not substitute natural reefs in terms of species assemblages and interspecific competition |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |date=1 August 2021 |volume=169 |pages=112576 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112576 |pmid=34119961 |bibcode=2021MarPB.16912576H |issn=0025-326X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

As a result, artificial reefs can unbalance the natural ecosystem and affect nearby habitats,<ref name="Simon">{{cite journal |last1=Simon |first1=Thiony |last2=Joyeux |first2=Jean-Christophe |last3=Pinheiro |first3=Hudson T. |title=Fish assemblages on shipwrecks and natural rocky reefs strongly differ in trophic structure |journal=Marine Environmental Research |date=1 September 2013 |volume=90 |pages=55–65 |doi=10.1016/j.marenvres.2013.05.012 |pmid=23796542 |bibcode=2013MarER..90...55S |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0141113613000950 |issn=0141-1136|url-access=subscription }}</ref> in some cases attracting non-native and invasive species that disrupt local ecosystems.<ref name="Schulze">{{cite journal |last1=Schulze |first1=Anja |last2=Erdner |first2=Deana L. |last3=Grimes |first3=Candace J. |last4=Holstein |first4=Daniel M. |last5=Miglietta |first5=Maria Pia |title=Artificial Reefs in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Community Ecology Amid the "Ocean Sprawl" |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |date=2020 |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2020.00447 |issn=2296-7745 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
In 2008, at Palmyra Atoll south of Hawaii, iron leaching from a shipwreck led to increases in algae and a sea anemone called a corallimorph, smothering existing coral to create a "black reef".<ref name="Joosse">{{cite news |last1=Joosse |first1=Tess |title=When Wrecks Become Reefs {{!}} Smithsonian Ocean |url=https://ocean.si.edu/ecosystems/coral-reefs/when-wrecks-become-reefs |work=Smithsonian Ocean |date=2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Artificial reefs can show quick increases in local fish population,<ref name="Polovina">{{cite journal |last1=Polovina |first1=Jeffrey |title=Impacts of Artificial Reefs on Fishery Production in Shimamaki, Japan |journal=Bulletin of Marine Science |date=1989 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=997–1003 |url=https://www.academia.edu/26230047}}</ref>
[[coral reef]]<ref name="Prabowo">{{cite journal |last1=Prabowo |first1=B |last2=Rikardi |first2=N |last3=Setiawan |first3=M A |last4=Santoso |first4=P |last5=Arafat |first5=D |last6=Subhan |first6=B |last7=Afandy |first7=A |title=The perspective of high coral growth rate on the artificial reef: what is causing enhancement of coral growth rate on Nyamuk Island, Anambas? |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |date=1 January 2022 |volume=967 |issue=1 |pages=012038 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/967/1/012038|bibcode=2022E&ES..967a2038P |doi-access=free }}</ref> and [[algae]] growth.<ref name="Marsden">{{cite journal |last1=Marsden |first1=J. Ellen |last2=Marcy-Quay |first2=Benjamin |last3=Dingledine |first3=Natalie |last4=Berndt |first4=Aaron |last5=Adams |first5=Janice |title=Physical and biological evolution of constructed reefs – long-term assessment and lessons learned |journal=Journal of Great Lakes Research |date=1 February 2023 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=276–287 |doi=10.1016/j.jglr.2022.10.008 |bibcode=2023JGLR...49..276M |s2cid=253359207 |issn=0380-1330|doi-access=free }}</ref> However, the attraction–production dilemma is the question of whether local increases in fish stocks result from broader-area distributional changes in populations (the attraction hypothesis) or increases in local production (the production hypothesis).<ref name="Roa-Ureta"/>
Some researchers, such as James Bohnsack, a biologist with the [[National Marine Fisheries Service]] (NMFS), have argued that the amount of biomass found on artificial reefs is attracted away from nearby areas rather than developing there. According to this view, artificial reefs do not increase fish populations.<ref name="Smith">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=James A. |last2=Lowry |first2=Michael B. |last3=Suthers |first3=Iain M. |title=Fish attraction to artificial reefs not always harmful: a simulation study |journal=Ecology and Evolution |date=30 September 2015 |volume=5 |issue=20 |pages=4590–4602 |doi=10.1002/ece3.1730 |pmid=26668725 |pmc=4670052 |bibcode=2015EcoEv...5.4590S |issn=2045-7758}}</ref><ref name="Bohnsack">{{cite journal |last1=Bohnsack |first1=James A. |last2=Ecklund |first2=A.-M. |title=Artificial reef research: Is there more than the attraction-production issue? |journal=Fisheries |date=1997 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=14–16 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279561041}}</ref> Instead they operate as a type of [[fish aggregating device]] (FAD) bringing in fish, eggs and larvae from other reefs.<ref name="Ceccarelli">{{cite book |last1=Ceccarelli |first1=D. |last2=Hurley |first2=T. |title=Fish aggregating devices and artificial reefs: Literature review of benefits and negative impacts for the Great Barrier Reef |date=2022 |publisher=Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority |location=Townsville |hdl=11017/3952 |isbn=9780645043853 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/11017/3952}}</ref> However, there is some evidence to suggest that artificial reefs can be a source of production as well as attraction.<ref name="Roa-Ureta"/> A 2022 review concluded that "the attraction-production question around ARs ... can only be assessed on a case-by-case basis for each AR, and
validated after their installation."<ref name="Ceccarelli"/>

Concentrating fish on a reef makes for easier fishing.<ref name="Spinner">{{cite news |last1=Spinner |first1=Kate |title=Artificial reefs' effect on fish populations comes under question |url=https://www.heraldtribune.com/story/news/2011/11/14/questions-about-artificial-reefs-effect-on-fish-counts/29060556007/ |work=Sarasota Herald-Tribune |date=November 13, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Karnauskas">{{cite journal |last1=Karnauskas |first1=Mandy |last2=Walter |first2=John F. |last3=Campbell |first3=Matthew D. |last4=Pollack |first4=Adam G. |last5=Drymon |first5=J. Marcus |last6=Powers |first6=Sean |title=Red Snapper Distribution on Natural Habitats and Artificial Structures in the Northern Gulf of Mexico |journal=Marine and Coastal Fisheries |date=January 2017 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=50–67 |doi=10.1080/19425120.2016.1255684 |language=en |issn=1942-5120|doi-access=free }}</ref>
The increased concentration of fish on artificial reefs can make it easier to harvest fish stocks, with the potential for [[overfishing]] and long-term damage to fisheries. This has implications for artisanal and industrial fishing management.<ref name="Spinner"/><ref name="Roa-Ureta">{{cite journal |last1=Roa-Ureta |first1=Ruben H. |last2=Santos |first2=Miguel N. |last3=Leitão |first3=Francisco |title=Modelling long-term fisheries data to resolve the attraction versus production dilemma of artificial reefs |journal=Ecological Modelling |date=September 2019 |volume=407 |pages=108727 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2019.108727 |bibcode=2019EcMod.40708727R |s2cid=198254212 |url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/ecomod/v407y2019ic2.html|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Debris ===
There are concerns that the placement of opportunity artificial reefs will be abused and become a pretext for disguised ocean dumping. Regulatory measures have been put forward by the U.S. and internationally in an effort to counter abuses, but may provide little protection.<ref name="Macdonald">{{cite journal |last1=Macdonald |first1=John M. |title=Artificial reef debate: Habitat enhancement or waste disposal? |journal=Ocean Development & International Law |date=January 1994 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=87–118 |doi=10.1080/00908329409546027 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00908329409546027 |access-date=16 June 2023 |language=en |issn=0090-8320|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Airoldi">{{cite journal |last1=Airoldi |first1=Laura |last2=Beck |first2=Michael W. |last3=Firth |first3=Louise B. |last4=Bugnot |first4=Ana B. |last5=Steinberg |first5=Peter D. |last6=Dafforn |first6=Katherine A. |title=Emerging Solutions to Return Nature to the Urban Ocean |journal=Annual Review of Marine Science |date=3 January 2021 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=445–477 |doi=10.1146/annurev-marine-032020-020015 |pmid=32867567 |bibcode=2021ARMS...13..445A |hdl=10026.1/16842 |s2cid=221402720 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-marine-032020-020015 |language=en |issn=1941-1405|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:Tire reef.jpg|thumb|[[Waste tires]] being placed in an array to investigate their effectiveness as a fish habitat, Pokai Bay, Oahu, July 1969.]]
Some artificial reefs have been found to be less stable than originally hoped, breaking into component parts that become ocean refuse, washing onto natural reefs and beaches and damaging them.
In the early 1970s [[waste tires]] were used to create a number of artificial reefs. [[Tropical storm]]s later demolished the tire containment system, washing tires onto beaches, [[coral reef destruction|destroying nearby coral reefs]] and inhibiting new coral growth.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Allen|first1=Greg|title=Fallout from Bad '70s Idea: Auto Tires in Ocean Reef|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11462066|access-date=8 March 2016|publisher=NPR|date=5 July 2007}}</ref> On the [[Osborne Reef]] off the coast of [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]], storms broke the nylon straps holding the original tire bundles together. As of November 2019, 250,000<ref name="2019-11-13 WPLG">{{cite news |last1=Stanwood |first1=Janine |date=2019-11-13 |title=Hundreds of thousands of tires being removed off Fort Lauderdale coast |url=https://www.local10.com/news/2019/11/14/hundreds-of-thousands-of-tires-being-removed-off-fort-lauderdale-coast/ |url-status=live |language=en |location=[[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]] |publisher=[[WPLG]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807155124/https://www.local10.com/news/2019/11/14/hundreds-of-thousands-of-tires-being-removed-off-fort-lauderdale-coast/ |archive-date=2020-08-07 |access-date=2021-01-08 |quote=Reef project gone wrong; crews now working to remove mass collection of tires}}</ref> of an estimated 700,000 tires have been removed.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fleshler|first1=David|title=Push is on to remove thousands of tires on ocean floor in Fort Lauderdale|url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/local/broward/fl-ocean-tire-removal-20160630-story.html|access-date=4 July 2016|publisher=Sun Sentinel|date=30 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Fleshler|first1=David|title=Fixing a catastrophe: Divers removing 90,000 tires from ocean|url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/local/broward/fl-tire-removal-20150514-story.html|access-date=8 March 2016|publisher=Sun Sentinel|date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Osborne Tire Reef|url=http://www.projectbaseline.org/gulfstream/project-baseline-gulfstream-projects/the-osborne-tire-reef/|website=projectbaseline.org|publisher=Project Baseline|access-date=14 March 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314214913/http://www.projectbaseline.org/gulfstream/project-baseline-gulfstream-projects/the-osborne-tire-reef/|archive-date=14 March 2016}}</ref><ref name=enn>{{cite news|url=http://www.enn.com/top_stories/article/6895 |title=Florida Raises Ill-Fated Artificial Reefs |last=Loney |first=Jim |agency=Reuters |publisher=Enn.com |date=9 July 2007 |access-date=5 April 2015}}</ref>
[[France]] has begun removing its tire reefs.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ferrer|first1=Sandra|title=France hits reverse on sinking tyres for artificial reefs|url=http://phys.org/news/2015-05-france-reverse-tyres-artificial-reefs.html|access-date=8 March 2016|publisher=Phys.org|date=22 May 2015}}</ref> The [[Ocean Conservancy]] now includes tire removal during the International Coastal Cleanup in September of each year.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Gaskill|first1=Melissa|title=Scuba Divers Left Picking Up Pieces After Tire Artificial Reef Projects Fail|url=http://www.sportdiver.com/scuba-diving-rubber-tire-artificial-reefs-france-florida|website=sportdiver.com|access-date=28 May 2016}}</ref>
Since 2021, [[4Ocean]] has added collecting tires from the bottom to their cleanup operations as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.today.com/video/inside-the-efforts-to-remove-millions-of-tires-dumped-into-the-ocean-decades-ago-129828421589|title=Inside the efforts to remove millions of tires dumped into the ocean decades ago|website=today.com|date=30 December 2021|access-date=19 March 2023}}</ref>

Some attempts to construct artificial surfing reefs have also been problematic.<ref name="Blacka"/> A number of early surfing installations used geotextile bags filled with sand which degraded more quickly than anticipated.<ref name="Borrero"/>  Cases such as [[Pratte's Reef]] in [[California]] and Mount Reef at [[Mount Maunganui]] in New Zealand have required extensive remediation work to remove materials. In some cases, remediation has cost more than the original installation.<ref name="Blacka"/><ref name="redux"/><ref name="Maunganui"/> It has been argued that this approach to reef construction is fundamentally flawed.<ref name="Gegan"/>

===Toxicity===
Artificial reefs, particularly opportunistic ones involving materials that were not originally intended for marine use, can [[environmental degradation|degrade]] and cause damage to the natural habitat.
If inappropriate materials are used in an artificial reef, they can interfere with the growth of algae which provide a food source for coral, causing the coral to die.<ref name="Pascoe">{{cite news |last1=Pascoe |first1=Robin |title=Dutch zoo works with Delft start-up to restore coral reefs |url=https://www.dutchnews.nl/2022/05/dutch-zoo-works-with-delft-start-up-to-restore-coral-reefs/ |work=DutchNews |date=24 May 2022}}</ref>

[[PVC]]s,<ref name="Zhou">{{cite book |last1=Zhou |first1=Huai Ying |last2=Gu |first2=Tian Long |last3=Yang |first3=Dao Guo |last4=Jiang |first4=Zheng Yi |last5=Zeng |first5=Jian Min |title=New and Advanced Materials |date=21 February 2011 |publisher=Trans Tech Publications Ltd |isbn=978-3-03813-580-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAa2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |language=en}}</ref>
[[plastics]],<ref name="Weiss">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Kenneth R. |title=The pileup of plastic debris is more than ugly ocean litter |journal=Knowable Magazine |date=21 September 2020 |doi=10.1146/knowable-120717-211902|doi-access=free |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/food-environment/2017/pileup-plastic-debris-more-ugly-ocean-litter |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Gao">{{cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Shike |last2=Li |first2=Zheng |last3=Wang |first3=Nuo |last4=Lu |first4=Yanan |last5=Zhang |first5=Shuo |title=Microplastics in different tissues of caught fish in the artificial reef area and adjacent waters of Haizhou Bay |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |date=January 2022 |volume=174 |pages=113112 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.113112 |pmid=34865856 |bibcode=2022MarPB.17413112G |s2cid=244849554 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34865856/ |issn=1879-3363}}</ref><ref name="Vered">{{cite journal |last1=Vered |first1=Gal |last2=Shenkar |first2=Noa |title=Limited effects of environmentally-relevant concentrations in seawater of dibutyl phthalate, dimethyl phthalate, bisphenol A, and 4-nonylphenol on the reproductive products of coral-reef organisms |journal=Environmental Pollution |date=1 December 2022 |volume=314 |pages=120285 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120285 |pmid=36179999 |bibcode=2022EPoll.31420285V |s2cid=252575291 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0269749122014993 |issn=0269-7491|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[oil]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lewis |first1=Justin P. |last2=Tarnecki |first2=Joseph H. |last3=Garner |first3=Steven B. |last4=Chagaris |first4=David D. |last5=Patterson |first5=William F. |title=Changes in Reef Fish Community Structure Following the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill |journal=Scientific Reports |date=9 April 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=5621 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-62574-y |pmid=32273520 |pmc=7145834 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.5621L |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>
[[paint]], [[asbestos]], [[iron]] and other rusting metal, can release [[toxicity|toxic]] contaminants such as Poly-chlorinated biphenols (PCBs) and heavy metals ( Pb, Cu, Ni, Cd, Zn, Ag, and Hg ).<ref name="Johnston">{{cite book |last1=Johnston |first1=R.K. |last2=Halkola |first2=H. |last3=George |first3=R. |last4=In |first4=C. |last5=Gauthier |first5=R. |last6=Wild |first6=W. |last7=Bell |first7=M. |last8=Martore |first8=R. |title=Oceans 2003. Celebrating the Past ... Teaming Toward the Future (IEEE Cat. No.03CH37492) |chapter=Assessing the ecological risk of creating artificial reefs from ex-warships |date=September 2003 |volume=2 |pages=804–811 Vol.2 |doi=10.1109/OCEANS.2003.178419|isbn=0-933957-30-0 |s2cid=42324129 }}</ref><ref name="Galiano">{{cite web |last1=Galiano |first1=Rich |title=Contamination Risks of Artificial Reefs and Shipwrecks ~ New Jersey Scuba Diving |url=https://njscuba.net/marine-biology/marine-biology-contents/contamination-risks-of-artificial-reefs-and-shipwrecks/ |website=New Jersey Scuba Diving}}</ref>
Toxic materials can potentially enter the food chain and affect it at all levels, including fish and humans. However, consumption of seafood from artificial reefs and wrecks is considered unlikely to pose a long-term health risk for humans at average levels of consumption, with the exception of urchins and other grazing shellfish which should be avoided.<ref name="Galiano"/>
[[File:US Navy 100428-N-3154P-149 Sailors assigned to Amphibious Construction Battalion (ACB) 2, use heavy machinery to load oyster shells for two new artificial oyster reef sites in the mud flats of Little Creek Cove.jpg|thumb|Using natural materials, such as oyster shells, can help create more natural artificial reefs.]]
International recommendations state that artificial reefs should use inert materials. Under the 2009 "Specific Guidelines for Assessment of Inert, Inorganic Geological Material" developed by the London Convention and Protocol/UNEP, inert materials cannot cause contamination through leaching, physical and chemical deterioration, or biological activity.<ref name="Santos">{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Jorge |last2=Cifrian |first2=Eva |last3=Rodriguez-Romero |first3=Araceli |last4=Yoris-Nobile |first4=Adrian I. |last5=Blanco-Fernandez |first5=Elena |last6=Castro-Fresno |first6=Daniel |last7=Andres |first7=Ana |title=Assessment of the environmental acceptability of potential artificial reef materials using two ecotoxicity tests: Luminescent bacteria and sea urchin embryogenesis |journal=Chemosphere |date=1 January 2023 |volume=310 |pages=136773 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136773 |pmid=36220438 |bibcode=2023Chmsp.31036773S |issn=0045-6535|doi-access=free |hdl=10902/26464 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Attempts continue to be made to create stable waste-based materials that will not pose a hazard, for use in artificial reefs.  For example, oil and coal fly ash have been stabilized with cement and lime to create experimental artificial reef blocks. However, as with the use of tires, there continue to be environmental concerns about the potential for leaching.<ref name="Valeriya">{{cite journal |last1=Komyakova |first1=Valeriya |last2=Chamberlain |first2=Dean |last3=Jones |first3=Geoffrey P. |last4=Swearer |first4=Stephen E. |title=Assessing the performance of artificial reefs as substitute habitat for temperate reef fishes: Implications for reef design and placement |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=10 June 2019 |volume=668 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.357 |pmid=30852192 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.668..139K |s2cid=73726930 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969719308654 |issn=0048-9697|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Shu-te">{{cite journal |last1=Shu-te |first1=Kuo |last2=Tsan-chuan |first2=Hsu |last3=Kwang-tsao |first3=Shao |title=Experiences of Coal Ash Artificial Reefs in Taiwan |journal=Chemistry and Ecology |date=March 1995 |volume=10 |issue=3–4 |pages=233–247 |doi=10.1080/02757549508037681 |bibcode=1995ChEco..10..233S |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02757549508037681 |language=en |issn=0275-7540|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Kay L. |last2=Coleman |first2=Melinda A. |last3=Connell |first3=Sean D. |last4=Russell |first4=Bayden D. |last5=Gillanders |first5=Bronwyn M. |last6=Kelaher |first6=Brendan P. |title=Ecological performance of construction materials subject to ocean climate change |journal=Marine Environmental Research |date=1 October 2017 |volume=131 |pages=177–182 |doi=10.1016/j.marenvres.2017.09.011 |pmid=28988853 |bibcode=2017MarER.131..177D |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0141113617304592 |issn=0141-1136|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In the United States, best practices for preparing vessels for use in artificial reefs include assuming that divers may access all locations, removing potential hazards to divers, removing all polluting or toxic materials, including [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCBs]] (in compliance with applicable water quality standards for class III ocean waters), and clearing debris and floatables.<ref>{{cite book |title=Guidelines and Management Practices for Artificial Reef Siting, Use, Construction, and Anchoring in Southeast Florida |date=2011 |publisher=Southeast Florida Coral Reef Initiative |url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/data/oceans/coris/library/NOAA/CRCP/other/other_crcp_publications/SEFCRI/MICCI_Project/MICCI_18_19.pdf}}</ref>
However, if materials over the pollutant threshold are too difficult to remove, permission to bypass their removal can be given by the EPA, as happened in the case of the ex-''[[USS Oriskany]]''. In spite of spending $20 million to decontaminate the vessel, the ship still contained an estimated 700 pounds of PCBs when it was sunk in 2006. Subsequent testing by the [[Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission]] over a four-year period found elevated levels of PCBs in fish living in the ship's "reef".<ref name="Olsen">{{cite news |last1=Olsen |first1=Erik |title=Out of Commission Above Water, but Not Below It |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/19/science/earth/19ship.html |work=The New York Times |date=19 August 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Basel Action Network and Sierra Club, Plaintiffs, v. US Envtl. Prot. Agency |url=https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/oceans/pdfs/complaint_%2012-9-11.pdf |website=The Center for Biological Diversity}}</ref><ref name="Merz">{{cite web |last1=Merz |first1=Nina  |date=July 30, 2021 |title=Dear U.S. Navy: Don't Dump Your Ships in Our Oceans |url=https://www.nationalpriorities.org/blog/2021/07/30/dear-us-navy-dont-dump-your-ships-our-oceans/ |website=National Priorities Project |language=en-us }}</ref>

Off the coast of California, an artificial reef has been constructed to lure fish away from a toxic site. Over 35 years, the [[Montrose Chemical Corporation of California]], a maker of [[DDT]], improperly disposed of toxic chemical waste through the sewer system and by dumping barrels of waste into the ocean. As part of remediation efforts by the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] (NOAA), 70,000 tons of quarry rock were placed on the ocean bottom nearer the beach in 2020, creating a new habitat to attract fish and kelp to a safer area.<ref name="Berardelli">{{cite news |last1=Berardelli |first1=Jeff |title=How a shocking environmental disaster was uncovered off the California coast after 70 years – CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/california-environmental-disaster-ocean-ddt-sea-lions/ |work=www.cbsnews.com |date=12 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=More Than 30 Acres of New Reef Habitat Built Off the Southern California Coast {{!}} NOAA Fisheries |url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/more-30-acres-new-reef-habitat-built-southern-california-coast |work=NOAA Fisheries |agency=NOAA |date=December 16, 2020 |language=en}}</ref>