Editing Basque language (section)

=== Influence on other languages ===
{{See also|List of Spanish words of Basque origin}}
Although the influence of the neighbouring [[Romance languages]] on the Basque language (especially the lexicon, but also to some degree Basque phonology and grammar) has been much more extensive, it is usually assumed that there has been some feedback from Basque into these languages as well. In particular [[Gascon language|Gascon]] and [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], and to a lesser degree [[Spanish language|Spanish]] are thought to have received this influence in the past. In the case of Aragonese and Gascon, this would have been through [[Substratum (linguistics)|substrate]] interference following [[language shift]] from [[Aquitanian language|Aquitanian]] or Basque to a Romance language, affecting all levels of the language, including place names around the Pyrenees.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Corominas |first=Joan |title=La toponymie hispanique prérromane et la survivance du basque jusqu'au bas moyen age |language=fr |trans-title=Pre-Romanesque Hispanic toponymy and the survival of Basque until the late Middle Ages |journal=IV Congrès International de Sciences Onomastiques |year=1960}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Corominas |first=Joan |title=Estudis de toponímia catalana, I |language=ca |trans-title=Studies of Catalan toponymy, I |year=1965 |publisher=Barcino |isbn=978-84-7226-080-1 |pages=153–217}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Corominas |first=Joan |title=De toponimia vasca y vasco-románica en los Bajos Pirineos |language=es |trans-title=Basque and Basque-Romanesque toponymy in the Low Pyrenees |journal=Fontes Linguae Vasconum: Studia et Documenta |year=1972 |issue=12 |pages=299–320 |doi=10.35462/flv12.2 |issn=0046-435X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Rohlfs, Gerhard (1980), Le Gascon: études de philologie pyrénéenne. ''Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie'' 85</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Irigoyen |first=Alfonso |title=En torno a la toponimia vasca y circumpirenaica |language=es |trans-title=About Basque and circum-Pyrenean toponymy |year=1986 |publisher=[[Universidad de Deusto]]}}</ref>

Although a number of words of alleged Basque origin in the Spanish language are circulated (e.g. {{wikt-lang|es|anchoa}} 'anchovies', {{wikt-lang|es|bizarro}} 'dashing, gallant, spirited', {{wikt-lang|es|cachorro}} 'puppy', etc.), most of these have more easily explicable Romance etymologies or not particularly convincing derivations from Basque.<ref name=Trask/> Ignoring cultural terms, there is one strong [[loanword]] candidate, {{wikt-lang|eu|ezker}}, long considered the source of the Pyrenean and [[Iberian Romance]] words for "left (side)" ({{Wikt-lang|es|izquierdo}}, {{Wikt-lang|pt|esquerdo}}, {{Wikt-lang|ca|esquerre}}).<ref name=Trask/><ref name="DCECH">{{cite book |last1=Corominas |first1=Joan |last2=Pascual |first2=José A. |title=Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico |date=1980 |publisher=Gredos |location=Madrid |isbn=84-249-1365-5 |pages=469–472 |edition=2.ª reimpresión (marzo de 1989) |language=es |chapter=izquierdo}}</ref> The lack of initial {{IPA|/r/}} in Gascon could arguably be due to a Basque influence but this issue is under-researched.<ref name=Trask/>

The other most commonly claimed substrate influences:
* the [[Old Spanish]] merger of {{IPA|/v/}} and {{IPA|/b/}}.
* the simple five-vowel system.
* change of initial {{IPA|/f/}} into {{IPA|/h/}} (e.g. {{Lang|osp|fablar}} → {{Lang|es|hablar}}, with Old Basque lacking {{IPA|/f/}} but having {{IPA|/h/}}).
* [[voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]] {{IPAblink|s̺}}, a sound transitional between [[Laminal consonant|laminodental]] {{IPAblink|s}} and [[Palatal consonant|palatal]] {{IPAblink|ʃ}}; this sound also influenced other [[Ibero-Romance languages]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]].

The first two features are common, widespread developments in many Romance (and non-Romance) languages.<ref name=Trask/>{{Specify|date=June 2016}} The change of {{IPA|/f/}} to {{IPA|/h/}} occurred historically only in a limited area ([[Gascony]] and [[Old Castile]]) that corresponds almost exactly to areas where heavy Basque bilingualism is assumed, and as a result has been widely postulated (and equally strongly disputed). Substrate theories are often difficult to prove (especially in the case of phonetically plausible changes like {{IPA|/f/}} to {{IPA|/h/}}). As a result, although many arguments have been made on both sides, the debate largely comes down to the a priori tendency on the part of particular linguists to accept or reject substrate arguments.

Examples of arguments against the substrate theory,<ref name=Trask/> and possible responses:
# Spanish did not fully shift {{IPA|/f/}} to {{IPA|/h/}}, instead, it has preserved {{IPA|/f/}} before consonants such as {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/ɾ/}} (cf {{Lang|es|fuerte}}, {{Lang|es|frente}}). (On the other hand, the occurrence of {{IPA|[f]}} in these words might be a secondary development from an earlier sound such as {{IPA|[h]}} or {{IPA|[ɸ]}} and learned words (or words influenced by written Latin form). Gascon does have {{IPA|/h/}} in these words, which might reflect the original situation.)
# Evidence of Arabic loanwords in Spanish points to {{IPA|/f/}} continuing to exist long after a Basque substrate might have had any effect on Spanish. (On the other hand, the occurrence of {{IPA|/f/}} in these words might be a late development. Many languages have come to accept new phonemes from other languages after a period of significant influence. For example, French lost {{IPA|/h/}} but later regained it as a result of Germanic influence, and has recently gained {{IPA|/ŋ/}} as a result of English influence.)
# Basque regularly developed Latin {{IPA|/f/}} into {{IPA|/b/}} or {{IPA|/p/}}.
# The same change also occurs in parts of Sardinia, Italy and the Romance languages of the Balkans where no Basque substrate can be reasonably argued for. (On the other hand, the fact that the same change might have occurred elsewhere independently does not disprove substrate influence. Furthermore, parts of [[Sardinia]] also have prothetic {{IPA|/a/}} or {{IPA|/e/}} before initial {{IPA|/r/}}, just as in Basque and Gascon, which may actually argue for some type of influence between both areas.)

Beyond these arguments, a number of [[nomadic]] groups of Castile are also said to use or have used Basque words in their jargon, such as the [[gacería]] in [[Segovia (province)|Segovia]], the [[mingaña]], the Galician [[fala dos arxinas]]<ref>Varela Pose, F.J. (2004)[http://revistas.ucm.es/fll/11389664/articulos/MADR0404110113A.PDF ''O latín dos canteiros en Cabana de Bergantiños''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100403084106/http://revistas.ucm.es/fll/11389664/articulos/MADR0404110113A.PDF |date=3 April 2010 }}. (pdf)[[Universidad Complutense de Madrid]]. Retrieved 11 June 2010.</ref> and the [[Asturias|Asturian]] [[Xíriga]].<ref name="Olaetxe">Olaetxe, J. Mallea. [http://basque.unr.edu/09/9.3/9.3.51t/9.3.51.03.mexico.htm "The Basques in the Mexican Regions: 16th–20th Centuries."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609204547/http://basque.unr.edu/09/9.3/9.3.51t/9.3.51.03.mexico.htm |date=9 June 2010 }} ''Basque Studies Program Newsletter'' No. 51 (1995).</ref>

Part of the [[Romani people|Romani]] community in the Basque Country speaks [[Erromintxela language|Erromintxela]], which is a rare [[mixed language]], with a [[Kalderash]] [[Romani language|Romani]] vocabulary and Basque grammar.{{sfn|Agirrezabal|2003}}

==== Basque pidgins ====
A number of Basque-based or Basque-influenced [[pidgin]]s have existed. In the 16th century, Basque sailors used a [[Basque–Icelandic pidgin]] in their contacts with Iceland.<ref name="Glossaria">Deen 1937.</ref> The [[Algonquian–Basque pidgin]] arose from contact between Basque [[whaling|whalers]] and the [[Algonquian peoples]] in the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] and [[Strait of Belle Isle]].{{sfn|Bakker|1987}}