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Bottom trawling
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===Resuspension and biogeochemistry=== Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1038/srep43332|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes|year = 2017|last1 = Paradis|first1 = Sarah|last2 = Puig|first2 = Pere|last3 = Masqué|first3 = Pere|last4 = Juan-Díaz|first4 = Xènia|last5 = Martín|first5 = Jacobo|last6 = Palanques|first6 = Albert|journal = Scientific Reports|volume = 7| issue=1 |page = 43332|pmid = 28233856|pmc = 5324136|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberle|first1=Ferdinand K.J.|last2=Storlazzi|first2=Curt D.|last3=Hanebuth|first3=Till J.J.|date=2016|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment|journal=Journal of Marine Systems|language=en|volume=159|pages=109–119|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Watanabe |first1=Hayato |last2=Ito |first2=Miku |last3=Matsumoto |first3=Akira |last4=Arakawa |first4=Hisayuki |date=2016-01-04 |title=Effects of sediment influx on the settlement and survival of canopy-forming macrophytes |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=18677 |doi=10.1038/srep18677 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=4698636 |pmid=26726051|bibcode=2016NatSR...618677W }}</ref> Repeated resuspension can also lead to a hardening of the sea bottom as finer sediments are proportionally more effectively carried away by currents than larger sediments, thus leading to habitat change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oberle |first1=Ferdinand K.J. |last2=Swarzenski |first2=Peter W. |last3=Reddy |first3=Christopher M. |last4=Nelson |first4=Robert K. |last5=Baasch |first5=Benjamin |last6=Hanebuth |first6=Till J.J. |date=July 2016 |title=Deciphering the lithological consequences of bottom trawling to sedimentary habitats on the shelf |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S092479631500233X |journal=Journal of Marine Systems |language=en |volume=159 |pages=120–131 |doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.008|bibcode=2016JMS...159..120O |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon|PAH]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Avellan |first1=Astrid |last2=Duarte |first2=Armando |last3=Rocha-Santos |first3=Teresa |date=February 2022 |title=Organic contaminants in marine sediments and seawater: A review for drawing environmental diagnostics and searching for informative predictors |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969721070881 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=808 |pages=152012 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152012|pmid=34856284 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.80852012A |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019|pmid=22842052|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=170|pages=232–241|year=2012|last1=Bradshaw|first1=C.|last2=Tjensvoll|first2=I.|last3=Sköld|first3=M.|last4=Allan|first4=I.J.|last5=Molvaer|first5=J.|last6=Magnusson|first6=J.|last7=Naes|first7=K.|last8=Nilsson|first8=H.C.|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref> [[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle|title=Treatise on Geochemistry|pages=585–643|year=2003|last1=Ruttenberg|first1=K.C.|publisher=Elsevier |isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=US Department of Commerce |first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |title=What is a dead zone? |url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 |website=oceanservice.noaa.gov |access-date=16 October 2020 |language=EN-US}}</ref> Even in areas where the bottom sediments are ancient, bottom trawling, by reintroducing the sediment into the water column, can create [[algae bloom|harmful algae blooms]].<ref>Giannakourou, A., Orlova, T.Y., Assimakopoulou, G., Pagou, K. (2005) ''Dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments from Thermaikos Gulf, Greece.'' Continental Shelf Research 25, 2585-2596. </ref><ref>Weaver, Dallas E (2007) [http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html ''Remote Impacts of Bottom Trawling''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410185854/http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html |date=2009-04-10 }}.</ref> More suspended solids are introduced into the oceans from bottom trawling than any other man-made source.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Palanques |first1=A. |last2=Guillén |first2=J. |last3=Puig |first3=P. |title=Impact of bottom trawling on water turbidity and muddy sediment of an unfished continental shelf |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |date=July 2001 |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=1100–1110 |doi=10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1100 |bibcode=2001LimOc..46.1100P |doi-access=free |hdl=10261/244111 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Multiple large-scale reviews on bottom trawling have noted that there is a great need for further studies that properly examine the effects of nutrient and toxin remobilization as well as [[Carbon cycle|carbon cycling]],<ref>NRC (2002) (National Research Council) Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. National Academies Press, Washington, DC</ref><ref>ICES (2006) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES): report of the WorkingGroup on Ecosystem Effects of Fishing Activities. ACE 05:1 179</ref> in order to better estimate [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and hence the impact on [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-02-01|title=Quantifying and valuing carbon flows and stores in coastal and shelf ecosystems in the UK|journal=Ecosystem Services|language=en|volume=35|pages=67–76|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.013|issn=2212-0416|doi-access=free|last1=Luisetti|first1=Tiziana|last2=Turner|first2=R. Kerry|last3=Andrews|first3=Julian E.|last4=Jickells|first4=Timothy D.|last5=Kröger|first5=Silke|last6=Diesing|first6=Markus|last7=Paltriguera|first7=Lucille|last8=Johnson|first8=Martin T.|last9=Parker|first9=Eleanor R.|last10=Bakker|first10=Dorothee C.E.|last11=Weston|first11=Keith|bibcode=2019EcoSv..35...67L }}</ref>
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