Editing Calutron (section)

=== Soviet Union and China ===
Like the United States, the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) carried out research on multiple enrichment technologies for the [[Soviet atomic bomb project]]. A trial electromagnetic process was carried out in 1946 with a calutron using a magnet taken from Germany. A site was chosen for an electromagnetic plant at [[Sverdlovsk-45]] in 1946. The pilot plant, known as Plant 418, was completed in 1948. A more efficient design was developed in which the particle beams were bent by 225° instead of 180° as in the American calutron. It was used to complete the uranium enrichment process after technical difficulties were encountered with the gaseous diffusion process. Uranium enriched to about 40 percent uranium-235 was brought to Sverdlovsk-45 for final enrichment to between 92 and 98 percent. After the problems with the gaseous diffusion process were resolved in 1950, it was decided not to proceed with a full-scale electromagnetic plant.<ref name="EMIS">{{cite report|chapter= EMIS in the Soviet Union|title=Iraq's calutrons Electromagnetic isotope separation, beam technology and nuclear weapon proliferation|first1=André |last1=Gsponer |first2=Jean-Pierre |last2=Hurni |volume=ISRI-95-03 |date=19 October 1995|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Iraq/andre/ISRI-95-03.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/sverdlovsk-45_nuc.htm |title=Sverdlovsk-45 |publisher=Global Security |access-date=5 September 2015}}</ref> {{As of|2009}}, it remains operational.<ref name="Beta 3" /> In 1969, a research calutron known as S-2 was built at [[All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Physics|Arzamas-16]] for high-efficiency separation of isotopes of heavy elements like plutonium.<ref name="EMIS" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Electromagnetic separation of actinide isotopes|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms|date = 1992|volume = 70|issue = 1–4|pages = 5|doi = 10.1016/0168-583x(92)95898-2|first1 = S.M.|last1 = Abramychev|first2 = N.V.|last2 = Balashov|first3 = S.P.|last3 = Vesnovskii|first4 = V.N.|last4 = Vjachin|first5 = V.G.|last5 = Lapin|first6 = E.A.|last6 = Nikitin|first7 = V.N.|last7 = Polynov|bibcode = 1992NIMPB..70....5A}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Highly enriched isotopes of uranium and transuranium elements for scientific investigation|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms|date = 1992|pages = 9–11|volume = 70|issue = 1–4|doi = 10.1016/0168-583X(92)95899-3|first1 = Stanislav P.|last1 = Vesnovskii|first2 = Vladimir N.|last2 = Polynov|bibcode = 1992NIMPB..70....9V}}</ref>

Four research and production calutrons were built at the China Institute of Atomic Energy in Beijing of identical design to those of the USSR in the early 1960s.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Electromagnetic separation of stable isotopes at the Institute of Atomic Energy, Academia Sinica|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research|date = 1981|pages = 25–33|volume = 186|issue = 1–2|doi = 10.1016/0029-554X(81)90885-5|first1 = Hua|last1 = Ming-da|first2 = Li|last2 = Gong-pan|first3 = Su|last3 = Shi-jun|first4 = Mao|last4 = Nai-feng|first5 = Lu|last5 = Hung-yung|bibcode = 1981NIMPR.186...25M}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Some experimental studies of the calutron ion source|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research|date = 1981|volume = 186|issue = 1–2|pages = 353|doi = 10.1016/0029-554x(81)90926-5|first1 = Li|last1 = Gongpan|first2 = Li|last2 = Zengpu|first3 = Pei|last3 = Tianli|first4 = Wang|last4 = Chaoju|bibcode = 1981NIMPR.186..353G}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Electromagnetic isotope separation at the China Institute of Atomic Energy|journal = Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms|date = 1 August 1992|pages = 17–20|volume = 70|issue = 1–4|doi = 10.1016/0168-583X(92)95902-4|first1 = Li|last1 = Gongpan|first2 = Lin|last2 = Zhizhou|first3 = Xiang|last3 = Xuyang|first4 = Deng|last4 = Jingting|bibcode = 1992NIMPB..70...17G}}</ref>