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Code of Hammurabi
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==Frame== ===Relief=== [[File:F0182 Louvre Code Hammourabi Bas-relief Sb8 rwk.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph. Refer to caption and adjacent text|The [[bas-relief|relief]] on the [[Louvre]] [[stele]]]] The relief appears to show Hammurabi standing before a seated Shamash.{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|p=73}} Shamash wears the horned crown of divinity{{sfnmp|1a1=Van Buren|1y=1943|2a1=Black|2a2=Green|2y=1998|2pp=102–103|3a1=Slanski|3y=2012|3p=106}} and has a solar attribute, flames,{{sfnp|Black|Green|1998|p=183}} spouting from his shoulders.{{sfnp|Breasted|1916|p=132}} Contrastingly, Scheil, in his {{lang|la|editio princeps}},{{sfnp|Souvay|1910}} identified the seated figure as Hammurabi and the standing figure as Shamash. Scheil also held that the scene showed Shamash dictating to Hammurabi while Hammurabi held a scribe's [[stylus]], gazing attentively at the god.{{sfnp|Scheil|1902|p=12}} Martha Roth lists other interpretations: "that the king is offering the laws to the god; that the king is accepting or offering the emblems of sovereignty of the rod and ring; or—most probably—that these emblems are the measuring tools of the rod-measure and rope-measure used in temple-building".{{sfnp|Roth|1995b|pp=22–23}} Hammurabi may even be imitating Shamash.{{sfnp|Charpin|2010|pp=81–82}} It is certain, though, that the draughtsman showed Hammurabi's close links to the divine realm,{{sfnp|Roth|1995b|p=23}} using composition and iconography.{{sfnp|Elsen-Novák|Novák|2006|pp=148–149}} ===Prologue=== The prologue and epilogue together occupy one-fifth of the text. Out of around 4,130 lines, the prologue occupies 300 lines and the epilogue occupies 500.{{sfnp|Roth|1995b|pp=15–16}} They are in [[ring composition]] around the laws, though there is no visual break distinguishing them from the laws.{{sfnp|Roth|1995b|p=16}} Both are written in poetic style,{{sfnp|Huehnergard|2011|p=160}} and, as William W. Davies wrote, "contain much{{nbsp}}... which sounds very like braggadocio".{{sfnp|Davies|1905|p=15}} The 300-line prologue begins with an [[etiology]] of Hammurabi's royal authority (1–49). [[Anu]]m, the Babylonian [[sky god]] and [[king of the gods]], granted rulership over humanity to [[Marduk]]. Marduk chose the centre of his earthly power to be Babylon, which in the real world worshipped him as its [[tutelary god]]. Marduk established the office of kingship within Babylon. Finally, Anum, along with the Babylonian [[wind god]] [[Enlil]], chose Hammurabi to be Babylon's king. Hammurabi was to rule "to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak" (37–39: {{lang|akk|dannum enšam ana lā ḫabālim}}). He was to rise like Shamash over the Mesopotamians (the {{lang|akk|ṣalmāt qaqqadim}}, literally the "black-headed people") and illuminate the land (40–44).{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|pp=76–77}}<ref group="note" name="CDLI and Roth">{{harvtxt|CDLI|2019}}'s line numbering, {{harvtxt|Roth|1995a}}'s translation. The line numbers may seem low, since the CDLI edition does not include sections not found on the Louvre stele.</ref> Hammurabi then lists his achievements and virtues (50–291). These are expressed in noun form, in the Akkadian first person singular nominal sentence construction "[noun]{{nbsp}}... {{lang|akk|anāku}}" ("I am [noun]").{{sfnp|Huehnergard|2011|pp=11–12}} The first nominal sentence (50–53) is short: "I am Hammurabi, the shepherd, selected by the god Enlil" ({{lang|akk|ḫammurabi rē'ûm nibīt enlil anāku}}). Then Hammurabi continues for over 200 lines in a single nominal sentence with the {{lang|akk|anāku}} delayed to the very end (291).{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|pp=77–80}}<ref group="note" name="CDLI and Roth" /> Hammurabi repeatedly calls himself {{lang|akk|na'dum}}, "pious" (lines 61, 149, 241, and 272). The metaphor of Hammurabi as his people's shepherd also recurs. It was a common metaphor for [[ancient Near East]]ern kings, but is perhaps justified by Hammurabi's interest in his subjects' affairs.{{sfnp|Van De Mieroop|2005|p=82}} His affinities with many different gods are stressed throughout. He is portrayed as dutiful in restoring and maintaining temples and peerless on the battlefield. The list of his accomplishments has helped establish that the text was written late in Hammurabi's reign. After the list, Hammurabi explains that he fulfilled Marduk's request to establish "truth and justice" ({{lang|akk|kittam u mīšaram}}) for the people (292–302), although the prologue never directly references the laws.{{sfnp|Driver|Miles|1952|pp=40–41}} The prologue ends "at that time:" (303: {{lang|akk|inūmišu}}) and the laws begin.{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|pp=80–81}}<ref group="note" name="CDLI and Roth" /> ===Epilogue=== [[File:Enki(Ea).jpg|thumb|alt=Ea or Enki, depicted on a cylinder seal with streams of fish spouting from his shoulders. Refer to caption|[[Ea (mythology)|Ea/Enki]], [[god of wisdom]] whom Hammurabi implores to confuse any defacer of his stele, depicted on a [[cylinder seal]] c. 2300 BC]] Unlike the prologue, the 500-line epilogue is explicitly related to the laws.{{sfnp|Driver|Miles|1952|pp=40–41}} The epilogue begins (3144'–3151'): "These are the just decisions which Hammurabi{{nbsp}}... has established" ({{lang|akk|dīnāt mīšarim ša ḫammurabi... ukinnu-ma}}). He exalts his laws and his magnanimity (3152'–3239').{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|pp=133–134}} He then expresses a hope that "any wronged man who has a lawsuit" ({{lang|akk|awīlum ḫablum ša awātam iraššû}}) may have the laws of the stele read aloud to him and know his rights (3240'–3256').{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|p=134}} This would bring Hammurabi praise (3257'–3275') and divine favour (3276'–3295').{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|pp=134–135}} Hammurabi wishes for good fortune for any ruler who heeds his pronouncements and respects his stele (3296'–3359').{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|pp=135–136}} However, he invokes the wrath of the gods on any man who disobeys or erases his pronouncements (3360'–3641', the end of the text).{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|pp=136–140}}<ref group="note" name="CDLI and Roth" /> The epilogue contains much legal imagery, and the phrase "to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak" (3202'–3203': {{lang|akk|dannum enšam ana lā ḫabālim}}){{sfnp|Roth|1995a|p=133}} is reused from the prologue. However, the king's main concern appears to be ensuring that his achievements are not forgotten and his name not sullied.{{sfnmp|1a1=Driver|1a2=Miles|1y=1952|1p=37|2a1=Bottéro|2y=1992|2p=167}} The list of curses heaped upon any future defacer is 281 lines long and extremely forceful. Some of the curses are very vivid: "may the god [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]]{{nbsp}}... decree for him a life that is no better than death" (3486'–3508': {{lang|akk|sîn... balāṭam ša itti mūtim šitannu ana šīmtim lišīmšum}});{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|p=138}} "may he [the future defacer] conclude every day, month, and year of his reign with groaning and mourning" (3497'–3501': {{lang|akk|ūmī warḫī šanāt palēšu ina tānēḫim u dimmatim lišaqti}});{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|p=138}} may he experience "the spilling of his life force like water" (3435'–3436': {{lang|akk|tabāk napištišu kīma mê}}).{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|p=137}} Hammurabi implores a variety of gods individually to turn their particular attributes against the defacer. For example: "may the [[storm god|[storm] god]] [[Adad]]{{nbsp}}... deprive him of the benefits of rain from heaven and flood from the springs" (3509'–3515': {{lang|akk|adad... zunnī ina šamê mīlam ina nagbim līṭeršu}});{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|p=138}} "may the [[god of wisdom|god [of wisdom]]] [[Ea (Babylonian god)|Ea]]{{nbsp}}... deprive him of all understanding and wisdom, and may he lead him into confusion" (3440'–3451': {{lang|akk|ea... uznam u nēmeqam līṭeršu-ma ina mīšītim littarrūšu}}).{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|p=137}}<ref group="note" name="CDLI and Roth" /> Gods and goddesses are invoked in this order:{{sfnp|Roth|1995a|pp=136–140}} {{div col|colwidth=15em}} # Anum (3387'–3394') # Enlil (3395'–3422') # [[Ninlil]] (3423'–3439') # Ea (3440'–3458') # Shamash (3459'–3485') # Sin (3486'–3508') # Adad (3509'–3525') # [[Zababa]] (3526'–3536') # [[Ishtar]] (3537'–3573') # [[Nergal]] (3574'–3589') # [[Nintu]] (3590'–3599') # [[Ninkarrak]] (3600'–3619') # All the gods (3620'–3635') # Enlil, a second time (3636'–3641') {{div col end}}
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