Editing Conscientious objector (section)

==Religious motives==
{{main|List of pacifist faiths|Freedom of religion}}
Cases of behavior which could be considered as religiously motivated conscientious objection are historically attested long before the modern term appeared. For example, the Medieval ''[[Orkneyinga Saga]]'' mentions that [[Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney]]&nbsp;– the future Saint Magnus&nbsp;– had a reputation for piety and gentleness, and because of his religious convictions refused to fight in a Viking raid on [[Anglesey]], [[Wales]], instead staying on board his ship singing [[psalm]]s.

The reasons for refusing to perform military service are varied. Many conscientious objectors cite religious reasons. [[Unitarian Universalists]] object to war in their sixth principle "The goal of world community with peace, liberty and justice for all". Members of the [[Peace Churches|Historic Peace Churches]] such as [[Quakers]], Anabaptists ([[Mennonites]], [[Amish]], [[Old Order Mennonite]], [[Conservative Mennonites]], the [[Bruderhof Communities]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Bruderhof_Communities|title=Bruderhof Communities – GAMEO|website=gameo.org|language=en|access-date=2017-12-19}}</ref> and [[Church of the Brethren]]), as well as Holiness Pacifists such as the [[Reformed Free Methodist Church]], [[Emmanuel Association of Churches]], the [[Immanuel Missionary Church]] and [[Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma)]], object to war from the conviction that Christian life is incompatible with military action, because [[Jesus]] enjoins his followers to love their enemies and to refuse violence.<ref name="Lewis2001">{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=James R. |title=The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions |date=2001 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-61592-738-8 |page=304 |language=English |quote=The doctrine of the Emmanuel Association is similar to that of the Pilgrim Holiness Church, but it has a very rigid behavior code called Principles of Holy Living. Members are conscientious objectors.}}</ref><ref name="RFMC1960">{{cite book |title=Discipline of the Reformed Free Methodist Church |date=17 March 1960 |publisher=The Sound of Trumpet Ministries |page=14 |language=English}}</ref> The [[Book of Discipline]] of the Reformed Free Methodist Church teaches:<ref name="RFMC1960"/>
{{blockquote|Militarism is contrary to the spirit of the New Testament and the teachings of Jesus Christ. Even from humanitarian principles alone, it is utterly indefensible. It is our profound and God-given conviction that none of our people be required to participate in war of any form and that these God-given convictions of our members be respected.<ref name="RFMC1960"/>}}

Since the American Civil War, [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] have been known as non-combatants, and have done work in hospitals or to give medical care rather than combat roles, and the church has upheld the non-combative position.<ref>[http://www.sidadventist.org/lead/index.php/resources/essent/89-leadership sidadventist.org]{{dead link |date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and [[Christadelphians]] refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe they should be neutral in worldly conflicts and often cite the latter portion of [http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Isaiah+2:4%E2%80%932:4&version=nrsv Isaiah 2:4] which states, "...neither shall they learn war anymore". Other objections can stem from a deep sense of responsibility toward humanity as a whole, or from simple denial that any government possesses the [[moral authority]] to command warlike behavior from its citizens.

The varied experiences of non-combatants are illustrated by those of Seventh-day Adventists when there was mandatory military service: "Many Seventh-day Adventists refuse to enter the army as combatants, but participate as medics, ambulance drivers, etc. During World War II in Germany, many SDA conscientious objectors were sent to concentration camps or mental institutions; some were executed. Some Seventh-day Adventists volunteered for the US Army's [[Operation Whitecoat]], participating in research to help others. The Church preferred to call them "conscientious participants", because they were willing to risk their lives as test subjects in potentially life-threatening research. Over 2,200 Seventh-day Adventists volunteered in experiments involving various infectious agents during the 1950s through the 1970s in Fort Detrick, MD."<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/sda3.htm "The Seventh-day Adventist Church: Controversies, books and other resources"] {{Webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20120911050201/http://www.religioustolerance.org/sda3.htm |date=11 September 2012 }}, ''religioustolerance.org'', Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance.</ref> Earlier, a [[Schism (religion)|schism]] arose during and after World War I between Seventh-day Adventists in Germany who agreed to serve in the military if conscripted and those who rejected all participation in warfare—the latter group eventually forming a separate church (the [[Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement]]).<ref>[http://www.sdarm.org/origin.htm "Origin of the Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815073949/http://www.sdarm.org/origin.htm |date=2010-08-15 }}.</ref>

[[File:Blessed are the Peacemakers.gif|thumb|''Blessed are the Peacemakers'' (1917) by [[George Bellows]] ]]

In the [[early Christian Church]] followers of [[Christ]] refused to take up arms.

{{blockquote|In as much as they [Jesus' teachings] ruled out as illicit all use of violence and injury against others, clearly implied [was] the illegitimacy of participation in war ... The early Christians took Jesus at his word, and understood his inculcations of gentleness and non-resistance in their literal sense. They closely identified their religion with peace; they strongly condemned war for the bloodshed which it involved.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Early Christian Attitude to War |author=C John Cadoux |url=http://compassionatespirit.com/Books/Cadoux/Chapter-21.htm |year=1919}}</ref>}}

After the [[Roman Empire]] officially embraced [[Christianity]], the [[just war theory]] was developed in order to reconcile warfare with Christian belief. After Theodosius I made Christianity an official religion of the Empire, this position slowly developed into the official position of the Western Church. In the 11th century, there was a further shift of opinion in the Latin-Christian tradition with the [[crusade]]s, strengthening the idea and acceptability of [[religious war|holy war]]. Objectors became a minority. Some theologians see the [[Constantinian shift]] and the loss of [[Christian pacifism]] as [[Great Apostasy|the great failing]] of the Church.

[[Ben Salmon]] was a Catholic conscientious objector during World War I and outspoken critic of Just War theology. The Catholic Church denounced him and ''The New York Times'' described him as a "spy suspect". The US military (in which he was never inducted) charged him with desertion and spreading propaganda, then sentenced him to death (this was later revised to 25 years hard labor).<ref>{{Cite journal |author = Staff of the Catholic Peace Fellowship |year= 2007 |title=The Life and Witness of Ben Salmon |journal = Sign of Peace |volume = 6.1 |issue = Spring 2007 |url=http://www.catholicpeacefellowship.org/nextpage.asp?m=2524}}</ref> On June 5, 1917, Salmon wrote in a letter to President Wilson:

{{cquote|Regardless of nationality, all men are brothers. God is "our Father who art in heaven". The commandment "Thou shalt not kill" is unconditional and inexorable. ... The lowly Nazarene taught us the doctrine of non-resistance, and so convinced was he of the soundness of that doctrine that he sealed his belief with death on the cross. When human law conflicts with Divine law, my duty is clear. Conscience, my infallible guide, impels me to tell you that prison, death, or both, are infinitely preferable to joining any branch of the Army.<ref>{{cite book |title=Unsung Hero of the Great War: The Life and Witness of Ben Salmon |year=1989 |author=Torin Finney |pages= 118–119}}</ref>}}

Nowadays, the Catholic Church teaches that "''Public authorities should make equitable provision for those who for reasons of conscience refuse to bear arms; these are nonetheless obliged to serve the human community in some other way.''" (point 2311 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church)<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P81.HTM |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church}}</ref>

Because of their conscientious objection to participation in military service, whether armed or unarmed, Jehovah's Witnesses have often faced imprisonment or other penalties. In [[Greece]], for example, before the introduction of alternative civilian service in 1997, hundreds of Witnesses were imprisoned, some for three years or even more for their refusal. In [[Armenia]], young Jehovah's Witnesses were imprisoned because of their conscientious objection to military service; this was discontinued in November 2013.<ref>[http://www.jw.org/en/news/by-region/europe/armenia/armenia-releases-imprisoned-jehovahs-witnesses/ Armenia Releases All Imprisoned Jehovah's Witnesses].</ref> The government of South Korea also imprisons hundreds for refusing the draft. In [[Switzerland]], virtually every Jehovah's Witness is exempted from military service.

For believers in [[Indian religions]], the opposition to warfare may be based on either the general idea of ''[[ahimsa]]'', [[nonviolence]], or on an explicit prohibition of violence by their religion, e.g., for a [[Buddhist]], one of the [[five precepts]] is "Pānātipātā veramaṇi sikkhāpadam samādiyāmi", or "I undertake the precept to refrain from destroying living creatures", which is in obvious opposition to the practice of warfare. The [[14th Dalai Lama]] has stated that war "should be relegated to the dustbin of history". On the other hand, many Buddhist sects, especially in Japan, have been thoroughly militarized, warrior monks (''yamabushi'' or ''[[sōhei]]'') participating in the civil wars. Hindu beliefs do not go against the concept of war, as seen in the [[Gita]]. Both Sikhs and Hindus believe war should be a last resort and should be fought to sustain life and morality in society.

Followers of the [[Baháʼí Faith]] are advised to do social service instead of active army service, but when this is not possible because of obligations in certain countries, the [[Baháʼí laws]] include ''loyalty to one's government'', and the individual should perform the army service.<ref>{{Cite thesis |chapter-url=http://bahai-library.com/mazal_comparison_christianity_bahai&chapter=1 |first=Peter |last=Mazal |date=1999 |degree=MA |title=Selected Topics of Comparison in Christianity and the Baháʼí Faith |chapter=1. The Moral Domain |publisher=Landegg Academy |access-date = 13 September 2006}}</ref><ref name="ud1">{{Cite book|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/UD/ud-136.html | first = Shoghi | last = Effendi |author-link = Shoghi Effendi|title = Unfolding Destiny|pages = 134–135}}</ref>

Some practitioners of [[paganism|pagan religions]], particularly [[Wicca]], may object on the grounds of the [[Wiccan rede]], which states "An it harm none, do what ye will" (or variations). The [[threefold law]] may also be grounds for objection.

A notable example of a conscientious objector was the [[Austrians|Austrian]] devout [[Roman Catholic]] Christian [[Franz Jägerstätter]], who was executed on August 9, 1943, for openly refusing to serve in the Nazi ''[[Wehrmacht]]'', consciously accepting the penalty of death. He was [[Beatification|declared Blessed]] by [[Pope Benedict XVI]] in 2007 for dying for his beliefs, and is viewed as a symbol of self-sacrificing resistance.