Editing Environmental racism (section)

== Reducing environmental racism ==
Activists have called for "more participatory and citizen-centered conceptions of justice."<ref>{{cite book|first=Melissa|last=Checker|title=Polluted Promises: Environmental Racism and the Search for Justice in a Southern Town|date=2005|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|location=New York City|isbn=978-0814716588|pages=122–123}}</ref><ref name="withered">{{cite book |first=Melissa|last=Checker|chapter=Withered Memories: Naming and Fighting Environmental Racism in Georgia|title=New Landscapes of Inequality: Neoliberalism and the Erosion of Democracy in America|editor1-first=Jane L.|editor1-last=Collins|editor2-first=Micaela|editor2-last=di Leonardo|editor3-first=Brett|editor3-last=Williams|location=Santa Fe, New Mexico|publisher=School for Advanced Research Press|date=2008|isbn=978-1934691014}}</ref> The [[environmental justice]] (EJ) movement and [[climate justice]] (CJ) movement address environmental racism in bringing attention and enacting change so that marginalized populations are not disproportionately [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable to climate change]] and pollution.<ref name="Lee">{{cite web|url=https://www.triplepundit.com/special/skeo-environmental-justice/environmental-justice-policies/|title=Understanding Environmental Justice Policies|last=Lee|first=Jan|date=6 June 2013|website=Triple Pundit|access-date=12 November 2018|archive-date=13 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113144421/https://www.triplepundit.com/special/skeo-environmental-justice/environmental-justice-policies/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Hardy">{{cite journal|last1=Hardy|first1=Dean|last2=Milligan|first2=Richard|last3=Heynen|first3=Nik|date=December 2017|title=Racial coastal formation: The environmental injustice of colorblind adaptation planning for sea-level rise.|journal=[[Geoforum]]|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|location=Amsterdam, Netherlands|volume=87|pages=62–72|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.10.005|doi-access=free}}</ref> According to the [[United Nations]] Conference on Environment and Development, one possible solution is the [[precautionary principle]], which states that "where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent [[environmental degradation]]."<ref>[http://www.unep.org/Documents.multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=78&ArticleID=1163 UNCED. (5-16 June 1972). "Rio Declaration on Environment and Development", United Nations Environment Programme] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904221831/http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?documentid=78 |date=4 September 2009 }}.</ref> Under this principle, the initiator of the potentially hazardous activity is charged with demonstrating the activity's safety. Environmental justice activists also emphasize the need for waste reduction in general, which would act to reduce the overall burden, as well as reduce methane emissions which in turn reduce [[climate change]].<ref name="withered" />

===Studies===
In wartimes, environmental racism occurs in ways that the public later learn about through reports. For example, Friends of the Earth International's Environmental Nakba report brings attention to environmental racism that has occurred in the Gaza Strip during the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|Israeli-Palestinian Conflict]]. Some Israeli practices include cutting off three days of water supply to refugee Palestinians and destroying farms.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edblogs.columbia.edu/scppx3335-001-2014-1/2014/04/02/beyond-the-us-borders-the-palestinian-israeli-case/#more-354|title=Beyond the US Borders: The Palestinian – Israeli Case {{!}} Environmental Leadership, Action and Ethics|website=edblogs.columbia.edu|language=en-US|access-date=13 November 2018}}</ref>

Besides studies that point out cases of environmental racism, studies have also provided information on how to go about changing regulations and preventing environmental racism from happening. In a study by Daum, Stoler and Grant on e-waste management in Accra, Ghana, the importance of engaging with different fields and organizations such as recycling firms, communities, and scrap metal traders are emphasized over adaptation strategies such as bans on burning and buy-back schemes that have not caused much effect on changing practices.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Daum|first1=Kurt|last2=Stoler|first2=Justin|last3=Grant|first3=Richard J.|date=2017|title=Toward a More Sustainable Trajectory for E-Waste Policy: A Review of a Decade of E-Waste Research in Accra, Ghana|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=14|issue=2|pages=135|doi=10.3390/ijerph14020135|issn=1661-7827|pmc=5334689|pmid=28146075|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=September 2013|title=Environmental Nakba|url=https://www.foei.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/06-foei-palestine-report-eng-lr.pdf|journal=Friends of the Earth International Report}}</ref>

Environmental justice scholars such as Laura Pulido, Department Head of [[Ethnic studies|Ethnic Studies]] and Professor at the [[University of Oregon]],<ref>Pulido, Laura. [https://www.laurapulido.org/c-v "C.V."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329095900/https://www.laurapulido.org/c-v |date=2022-03-29 }} ''www.laurapulido.org''. Retrieved 23 November 2021.</ref> and [[David Pellow]], Dehlsen and Department Chair of [[Environmental studies|Environmental Studies]] and Director of the Global Environmental Justice Project at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]],<ref>{{cite web|title=David N. Pellow {{!}} Environmental Studies Program|url=https://www.es.ucsb.edu/david-n-pellow|access-date=2021-11-23|website=www.es.ucsb.edu}}</ref> argue that recognizing environmental racism as an element stemming from the entrenched legacies of [[racial capitalism]] is crucial to the movement, with [[white supremacy]] continuing to shape human relationships with nature and labor.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pulido|first1=Laura|last2=De Lara|first2=Juan|date=March 2018|title=Reimagining 'justice' in environmental justice: Radical ecologies, decolonial thought, and the Black Radical Tradition|journal=Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space|volume=1|issue=1–2|pages=76–98|doi=10.1177/2514848618770363|s2cid=149765978|issn=2514-8486|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018EnPlE...1...76P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pellow|first1=David|last2=Vazin|first2=Jasmine|date=2019-07-19|title=The Intersection of Race, Immigration Status, and Environmental Justice|journal=Sustainability|volume=11|issue=14|pages=3942|doi=10.3390/su11143942|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Sust...11.3942P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Pulido|first=Laura|date=2016-05-13|title=Geographies of race and ethnicity II|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0309132516646495|journal=Progress in Human Geography|volume=41|issue=4|pages=524–533|doi=10.1177/0309132516646495|s2cid=147792869|issn=0309-1325}}</ref>

=== Procedural justice ===
Current political ideologies surrounding how to make right issues of environmental racism and environmental justice are shifting towards the idea of employing [[procedural justice]]. Procedural justice is a concept that dictates the use of fairness in the process of making decisions, especially when said decisions are being made in diplomatic situations such as the allocation of resources or the settling of disagreements. Procedural justice calls for a fair, transparent, impartial decision-making process with equal opportunity for all parties to voice their positions, opinions, and concerns.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cops.usdoj.gov/prodceduraljustice|title=PROCEDURAL JUSTICE {{!}} COPS OFFICE|website=cops.usdoj.gov|access-date=17 March 2020|archive-date=8 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408145818/https://cops.usdoj.gov/prodceduraljustice|url-status=dead}}</ref> Rather than just focusing on the outcomes of agreements and the effects those outcomes have on affected populations and interest groups, procedural justice looks to involve all stakeholders throughout the process from planning through implementation. In terms of combating environmental racism, procedural justice helps to reduce the opportunities for powerful actors such as often-corrupt states or private entities to dictate the entire decision-making process and puts some power back into the hands of those who will be directly affected by the decisions being made.<ref name="Schroeder" />

=== Activism ===
Activism takes many forms. One form is collective demonstrations or protests, which can take place on a number of different levels from local to international. Additionally, in places where activists feel as though governmental solutions will work, organizations and individuals alike can pursue direct political action. In many cases, activists and organizations will form partnerships both regionally and internationally to gain more clout in pursuit of their goals.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Schroeder|first1=Richard|last2=Martin|first2=Kevin St|last3=Wilson|first3=Bradley|last4=Sen|first4=Debarati|date=15 July 2008|title=Third World Environmental Justice|journal=Society & Natural Resources|volume=21|issue=7|pages=547–555|doi=10.1080/08941920802100721|bibcode=2008SNatR..21..547S |s2cid=44016010|issn=0894-1920}}</ref>

==== Indigenous women's movements in Canada ====
There have been many resistance movements in Canada initiated by Indigenous women against environmental racism. One that was prominent and had a great impact on the movement was, The [[Native Women's Association of Canada]]'s (NWAC) [[Sisters in Spirit]] Initiative. This initiative aims to create reports on the deaths and disappearances of Indigenous women in order to raise awareness and get government and civil society groups to take action.<ref>{{cite web|last=The Native Women's Association of Canada|date=2021|title=About|url=https://www.nwac.ca/about/|access-date=26 February 2021|website=[[The Native Women's Association of Canada]]}}</ref> Though the Canadian federal government decided to defund the Sisters in Spirit Initiative in 2010, the NWAC continues to support women, Two-Spirit and LGBTQ+ Indigenous peoples in their fight to be heard.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bourgeois|first=Robyn|date=2014|title=Warrior Women: Indigenous Women's Anti-Violence Engagement with the Canadian State|url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/68238/1/Bourgeois_Robyn_S_201411_PhD_thesis.pdf|journal=[[University of Toronto]]|pages=1–374}}</ref> In other Indigenous resistance movements there is an emphasis on healing from trauma by focusing on spirituality and traditional practices in order to fight against the forces of patriarchy and racism that have caused environmental racism.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|last=Women's Earth Alliance and Native Youth Sexual Health Network|title=VIOLENCE ON THE LAND, VIOLENCE ON OUR BODIES|url=http://landbodydefense.org/uploads/files/VLVBReportToolkit2016.pdf|access-date=26 February 2021}}</ref> Activists and Indigenous communities have also gone through state official legal routes to voice their concerns such as discussing treaties, anti-human trafficking laws, anti-violence against women laws and [[Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples|UNDRIP]].<ref name=":1" />&nbsp; These have been deemed insufficient solutions by Indigenous groups and communities because there are some voices that are not heard and because the state does not respect or recognize the sovereignty of Indigenous nations.<ref name=":1" />

=== Environmental reparations ===
Some scientists and economists have looked into the prospect of Environmental Reparations, or forms of payment made to individuals who are affected by industry presence in some way. Potential groups to be impacted include individuals living in close proximity to industry, victims of natural disasters, and climate refugees who flee hazardous living conditions in their own country. Reparations can take many forms, from direct payouts to individuals, to money set aside for waste-site cleanups, to purchasing air monitors for low income residential neighborhoods, to investing in public transportation, which reduces green house gas emissions. As Robert Bullard writes,<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>Environmental Reparations represent a bridge to sustainability and equity... Reparations are both spiritual and environmental medicine for healing and reconciliation.</blockquote>

===Policies and international agreements===
The [[global waste trade|export of hazardous waste]] to third world countries is another growing concern. Between 1989 and 1994, an estimated 2,611 metric tons of hazardous waste was exported from [[OECD|Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)]] countries to non-OECD countries. Two international agreements were passed in response to the growing exportation of hazardous waste into their borders. The [[Organisation of African Unity|Organization of African Unity]] (OAU) was concerned that the Basel Convention adopted in March 1989 did not include a total ban on the trans-boundary movement on hazardous waste. In response to their concerns, on 30 January 1991, the Pan-African Conference on Environmental and Sustainable Development adopted the Bamako Convention banning the import of all hazardous waste into Africa and limiting their movement within the continent. In September 1995, the [[Group of 77|G-77]] nations helped amend the Basel Convention to ban the export of all hazardous waste from industrial countries (mainly OECD countries and [[Lichtenstein, Baden-Württemberg|Lichtenstein]]) to other countries.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bullard |first=Robert |title=Confronting Environmental Racism in the Twenty-First Century |url=http://www.worlddialogue.org/content.php?id=179 |publisher=Global Dialogue |access-date=19 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426041754/http://www.worlddialogue.org/content.php?id=179 |archive-date=26 April 2012}}</ref> A resolution was signed in 1988 by the OAU which declared toxic waste dumping to be a "crime against Africa and the African people".<ref name="Routledge">{{Citation|chapter=The transboundary shipments of hazardous wastes|date=23 April 1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780419218906|doi=10.4324/9780203476901.ch4|title=International Trade in Hazardous Wastes|doi-broken-date=29 December 2024 }}</ref> Soon after, the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) passed a resolution that allowed for penalties, such as life imprisonment, to those who were caught dumping toxic wastes.<ref name="Routledge" />

[[Globalization]] and the increase in transnational agreements introduce possibilities for cases of environmental racism. For example, the 1994 [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) attracted US-owned factories to Mexico, where toxic waste was abandoned in the [[Chilpancingo|Colonia Chilpancingo]] community and was not cleaned up until activists called for the Mexican government to clean up the waste.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Paul|last1=Mohai|first2=David|last2=Pellow, David|first3=J. Timmons|last3=Roberts|year=2009|title=Environmental Justice|journal=[[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]]|publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]]|location=Palo Alto, California|volume=34|pages=405–430|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-082508-094348|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Environmental justice movements have grown to become an important part of world summits. This issue is gathering attention and features a wide array of people, workers, and levels of society that are working together. Concerns about globalization can bring together a wide range of stakeholders including workers, academics, and community leaders for whom increased industrial development is a common denominator".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Claudio|first=Luz|date=October 2007|title=Standing on Principle: The Global Push for Environmental Justice|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=115|issue=10|pages=A500–A503|issn=0091-6765|pmc=2022674|pmid=17938719|doi=10.1289/ehp.115-a500}}</ref>

Many policies can be expounded based on the state of human welfare. This occurs because environmental justice is aimed at creating safe, fair, and equal opportunity for communities and to ensure things like redlining do not occur.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bullard|first=Robert D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yVr9lhrrTVwC&q=policies+and+environmental+racism&pg=PA1|title=Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots|date=1993|publisher=South End Press|isbn=978-0-89608-446-9|language=en}}</ref> With all of these unique elements in mind, there are serious ramifications for policy makers to consider when they make decisions.

=== United States legislation and policies ===
Relevant laws and regulations aimed to address environmental racism encompass a combination of tort law, civil rights law, and environmental law. Here's a quick breakdown of these laws:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Homepage |url=https://milberg.com/ |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=Milberg {{!}} Leading Class Action Law Firm |language=en-US}}</ref>

'''Tort law:'''

This law allows individuals or communities to seek compensation for damages caused by the negligence or wrongful actions of others. In the context of environmental racism, plaintiffs can use tort law to claim compensation for health issues, property damage, or loss of quality of life due to pollution or other environmental harms.

'''Civil rights law:'''

Litigation under civil rights statutes focuses on challenging the discriminatory impact of environmental decisions and policies. Lawsuits may argue that certain actions or policies have a disparate impact on communities of color, violating their civil rights.

'''Environmental law:'''

Federal environmental statutes, such as the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) provide mechanisms for challenging the adequacy of environmental reviews or compliance with regulatory standards.

=== Current initiatives in the United States ===
Most initiatives currently focusing on environmental racism are more focused on the larger topic of environmental justice. They are at both the state and federal levels.

On the state level, local politicians focus on their communities to introduce policies that will affect them, including land use policies, improving the environmental health impacts, and involving their community in the planning processes for these policies.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=State and Federal Environmental Justice Efforts |url=https://www.ncsl.org/environment-and-natural-resources/state-and-federal-environmental-justice-efforts |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=www.ncsl.org}}</ref>

Fourteen states have created offices that are specifically focused on environmental justice and advise policymakers on how their policies may impact minority populations. Maryland established their Commission on Environmental Justice and Sustainable Communities in 2001. The most recently formed councils were formed in 2022 by Vermont and Oregon.<ref name=":6" />

Federally, the EPA is responsible for environmental justice initiatives including the Environmental Justice Government-to-Government Program (EJG2G). The EJG2G provides a clearer line of communication and funding between all types of governments such as state, local, and tribal to make a strong effort to steer towards a more environmentally equitable society.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OEJECR |date=2020-04-23 |title=The Environmental Justice Government-to-Government Program |url=https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice/environmental-justice-government-government-program |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref>

In April 2023, President Biden affirmed his commitment to environmental justice by introducing the Justice40 Initiative. The Justice40 initiative is a goal to make 40 percent of federal environmental programs go into marginalized communities that have not typically been the target for such programs. This initiative includes things like the [https://screeningtool.geoplatform.gov/en/#3/33.47/-97.5 Climate and Economic Justice Screening Tool] and the training for federal agencies on how to use it to identify communities who may benefit from these programs. This initiative includes several federal agencies including the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Department of Commerce, the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. It's dedicated to community outreach by involving local governments and encouraging the community to have a say in the programs that may be implemented in their communities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Justice40 Initiative {{!}} Environmental Justice |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/environmentaljustice/justice40/ |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Potential solutions ===
Environmental racism is a crucial aspect that needs to be a part of the climate crisis conversation. Learning more about environmental racism, supporting a green economy that uplifts BIPOC communities, and making environmentalism a communal practice are approaches that can address these injustices.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=2020-09-29 |title=How to Unite the Fight for Racial Equity and Environmental Action |url=https://www.nrdc.org/stories/how-unite-fight-racial-equity-and-environmental-action |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=www.nrdc.org |language=en}}</ref>

Environmentalism as a communal practice emphasizes the importance of viewing environmentalism as a communal effort rather than a competition between individuals by advocating for the well-being of these marginalized communities as well as supporting efforts that address overarching themes of environmental justice. Following this, understanding environmental racism highlights the concept of environmental racism where BIPOC communities disproportionately bear the burden of pollution and environmental hazards due to discrimination in public policies and industry practice. It is also important to understand the impact of environmental racism and to push for discussions that point out disparities imposed on communities of color. Supporting a green economy is also crucial, it's important to advocate for a transition to clean energy as well as uplifting BIPOC communities economically and socially. In addition, being involved within the clean energy sector for marginalized communities is another step to empowering BIPOC communities and leading in environmental protection efforts.<ref name=":7" />