Editing Episodic memory (section)

==In animals==
{{Main|Episodic-like memory}}

Tulving (1983) proposed that to meet the criteria of episodic memory, evidence of conscious recollection must be provided. Demonstrating episodic memory in the absence of language, and thus in non-human animals, has been declared impossible as long as there are no agreed-upon non-linguistic behavioral indicators of conscious experience (Griffiths et al., 1999).
 
This idea was first challenged by Clayton and Dickinson in their work with the [[western scrub jay]] (''Aphelocoma californica''). They were able to demonstrate that these birds may possess an episodic-like memory system as they found that they remember where they cached different food types and discriminately recovered them depending on the perishability of the item and time that elapsed since caching. Thus, scrub-jays appear to remember the "what-where-and-when" of specific past caching events. The authors argued that such performance meets the behavioral criteria for episodic memory, but referred to the ability as "episodic-like" memory because the study did not address the phenomenological aspects of episodic memory.
 
According to a study conducted by the [[University of Edinburgh]] (2006), [[hummingbird]]s were the first animal to demonstrate two of the aspects of episodic memory—the ability to recall where certain flowers were located and how recently they were visited. Other studies have examined this type of memory in different animal species, such as dogs,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/dogs-remember-more-than-we-think-180961219/ |title=Dogs May Possess a Type of Memory Once Considered 'Uniquely Human' |first=Ben |last=Panko |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fugazza C, Pogány Á, Miklósi Á | title = Recall of Others' Actions after Incidental Encoding Reveals Episodic-like Memory in Dogs | journal = Current Biology | volume = 26 | issue = 23 | pages = 3209–3213 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27889264 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2016.09.057 | s2cid = 6491384 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2016CBio...26.3209F }}</ref> rats, honey bees, and primates.

The ability of animals to encode and retrieve past experiences relies on the circuitry of the medial temporal lobe, a structure including the hippocampus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clayton|first1=N. S. |last2=Griffiths|first2=D. P. |last3=Emery|first3=N. J.|last4=Dickinson|first4=A.|date=2001 |title=Elements of Episodic-like Memory in Animals|journal=Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences|volume=356 |issue=1413|pages=1483–1491 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2001.0947|jstor=3067106|pmid=11571038|pmc=1088530|issn=0962-8436}}</ref> Animal lesion studies have provided significant findings related to the importance of particular brain structures in episodic-like memory. For example, hippocampal lesions have severely impacted all three components (what, where, and when) in animals, suggesting that the hippocampus is responsible for detecting novel events, stimuli, and places when forming new memories and retrieving that information later on.
 
Despite similar neural areas and evidence from experiments, some scholars remain cautious about comparisons to human episodic memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Suddendorf T, Busby J | title = Mental time travel in animals? | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 7 | issue = 9 | pages = 391–396 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 12963469 | doi = 10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00187-6 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.333.8777 | s2cid = 2573813 }}</ref> Purported episodic-like memory often seems fixed to a particular domain or could be explained in terms of procedural or semantic memory. The problem may be better tractable by studying episodic memory's adaptive counterpart: the capacity to flexibly imagine future events. However, a recent experiment addressed one of Suddendorf and Busby (2003)'s specific criticisms (the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis, which states that nonhuman animals can only take actions based on immediate needs, as opposed to future needs). Correia and colleagues demonstrated <ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Correia SP, Dickinson A, Clayton NS | title = Western scrub-jays anticipate future needs independently of their current motivational state | journal = Current Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 10 | pages = 856–61 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17462894 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2007.03.063 | s2cid = 2905358 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2007CBio...17..856C }}</ref> that western scrub-jays can selectively cache different types of foods depending on which type of food they will desire at a future time, offering strong evidence against the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis by demonstrating that scrub-jays can flexibly adjust their behavior based on past experience of desiring a particular food. [[The Gap (book)|Similarities and differences between humans and other animals]] are currently much debated.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Scarf D, Smith C, Stuart M | title = A spoon full of studies helps the comparison go down: a comparative analysis of Tulving's spoon test | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 5 | pages = 893 | year = 2014 | pmid = 25161644 | pmc = 4130454 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00893 | doi-access = free }}</ref>