Editing Expressionism (section)

==In other arts==
The Expressionist movement included other types of culture, including dance, sculpture, cinema and theatre.
[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P047336, Berlin, Mary Wigman-Studio.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mary Wigman]], pioneer of [[Expressionist dance]] (left) at her West Berlin studio in 1959|left]]

===Dance===
{{Main|Expressionist dance}}
Exponents of expressionist dance included [[Mary Wigman]], [[Rudolf von Laban]], and [[Pina Bausch]].<ref name="Walther1997">{{cite book|last=Walther|first=Suzanne|title=The Dance Theatre of Kurt Jooss|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-EqPAgAAQBAJ|access-date=29 May 2018|date=23 December 1997|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-30564-2|page=23}}</ref>

===Sculpture===
Some [[sculptors]] used the Expressionist style, as for example [[Ernst Barlach]]. Other expressionist artists known mainly as painters, such as [[Erich Heckel]], also worked with sculpture.<ref name="EHGombrich" />

===Cinema===
{{Main|German Expressionism (cinema)}}
There was an Expressionist style in German cinema, important examples of which are [[Robert Wiene]]'s ''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920 film)|The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'' (1920), [[Paul Wegener]]'s ''[[The Golem: How He Came into the World]]'' (1920), [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' (1927) and [[F. W. Murnau]]'s ''[[Nosferatu|Nosferatu, a Symphony of Horror]]'' (1922) and ''[[The Last Laugh (1924 film)|The Last Laugh]]'' (1924). The term "expressionist" is also sometimes used to refer to stylistic devices thought to resemble those of German Expressionism, such as [[film noir]] cinematography or the style of several of the films of [[Ingmar Bergman]]. More generally, the term expressionism can be used to describe cinematic styles of great artifice, such as the technicolor melodramas of [[Douglas Sirk]] or the sound and visual design of [[David Lynch]]'s films.<ref name="PramaggioreWallis2005">{{cite book|author1=Maria Pramaggiore|author2=Tom Wallis|title=Film: A Critical Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/filmcriticalintr0000pram|url-access=registration|access-date=29 May 2018|year=2005|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|isbn=978-1-85669-442-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/filmcriticalintr0000pram/page/88 88]–90}}</ref>

===Literature===

====Journals====
Two leading Expressionist journals published in Berlin were ''[[Der Sturm]]'', published by [[Herwarth Walden]] starting in 1910,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Der Sturm.|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/570146/Der-Sturm|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|access-date=21 January 2012|year=2012}}</ref> and ''[[Die Aktion]]'', which first appeared in 1911 and was edited by [[Franz Pfemfert]]. ''Der Sturm'' published poetry and prose from contributors such as [[Peter Altenberg]], [[Max Brod]], [[Richard Dehmel]], [[Alfred Döblin]], [[Anatole France]], [[Knut Hamsun]], Arno Holz, [[Karl Kraus (writer)|Karl Kraus]], [[Selma Lagerlöf]], [[Adolf Loos]], [[Heinrich Mann]], [[Paul Scheerbart]], and [[René Schickele]], and writings, drawings, and prints by such artists as [[Kokoschka]], Kandinsky, and members of ''Der blaue Reiter''.<ref name="Berghaus2012">{{cite book|author=Günter Berghaus|title=International Futurism in Arts and Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcshAAAAQBAJ|access-date=29 May 2018|date=25 October 2012|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-080422-5|pages=285–286}}</ref>

====Drama====
{{Main|Expressionism (theatre)}}
[[Oskar Kokoschka]]'s 1909 playlet, ''Murderer, The Hope of Women'' is often termed the first expressionist drama. In it, an unnamed man and woman struggle for dominance. The man brands the woman; she stabs and imprisons him. He frees himself and she falls dead at his touch. As the play ends, he slaughters all around him (in the words of the text) "like mosquitoes." The extreme simplification of characters to mythic types, choral effects, declamatory dialogue and heightened intensity all would become characteristic of later expressionist plays.<ref name="Graver1995">{{cite book|author=David Graver|title=The Aesthetics of Disturbance: Anti-art in Avant-garde Drama|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ub69UFnyuSwC|access-date=29 May 2018|year=1995|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=0-472-10507-8|page=65}}</ref> The German composer [[Paul Hindemith]] created an [[Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen|operatic version]] of this play, which premiered in 1921.<ref name="Stewart1991">{{cite book|author=John Lincoln Stewart|title=Ernst Krenek: The Man and His Music|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_-5RqK8C__ysC|access-date=29 May 2018|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07014-1|page=82}}</ref>

Expressionism was a dominant influence on early 20th-century German theatre, of which [[Georg Kaiser]] and [[Ernst Toller]] were the most famous playwrights. Other notable Expressionist dramatists included [[Reinhard Sorge]], [[Walter Hasenclever]], [[Hans Henny Jahnn]], and [[Arnolt Bronnen]]. Important precursors were the Swedish playwright August Strindberg and German actor and dramatist Frank Wedekind. During the 1920s, Expressionism enjoyed a brief period of influence in American theatre, including the early modernist plays by [[Eugene O'Neill]] (''[[The Hairy Ape]]'', ''[[The Emperor Jones]]'' and ''The Great God Brown''), [[Sophie Treadwell]] (''[[Machinal]]'') and [[Elmer Rice]] (''[[The Adding Machine]]'').<ref name="Law2013">{{cite book|author=Jonathan Law|title=The Methuen Drama Dictionary of the Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXMsAQAAQBAJ|access-date=29 May 2018|date=28 October 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4081-4591-3}}</ref>

Expressionist plays often dramatise the spiritual awakening and sufferings of their protagonists. Some utilise an [[Epic poetry|episodic]] [[dramatic structure]] and are known as ''Stationendramen'' (station plays), modeled on the presentation of the suffering and death of [[Jesus]] in the [[Stations of the Cross]]. Strindberg had pioneered this form with his autobiographical trilogy ''[[To Damascus]]''. These plays also often dramatise the struggle against bourgeois values and established authority, frequently personified by the Father. In Sorge's ''The Beggar'', (''Der Bettler''), for example, the young hero's mentally ill father raves about the prospect of mining the riches of Mars and is finally poisoned by his son. In Bronnen's ''[[Parricide]]'' (''Vatermord''), the son stabs his tyrannical father to death, only to have to fend off the frenzied sexual overtures of his mother.<ref name="Styan1983">{{cite book|author=J. L. Styan|title=Modern Drama in Theory and Practice: Volume 3, Expressionism and Epic Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sBSKmRjbbU4C|access-date=29 May 2018|date=9 June 1983|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29630-4|page=4}}</ref>

In Expressionist drama, the speech may be either expansive and rhapsodic, or clipped and telegraphic. Director [[Leopold Jessner]] became famous for his expressionistic productions, often set on stark, steeply raked flights of stairs (having borrowed the idea from the [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist]] director and designer, [[Edward Gordon Craig]]). Staging was especially important in Expressionist drama, with directors forgoing the illusion of reality to block actors in as close to two-dimensional movement. Directors also made heavy use of lighting effects to create stark contrast and as another method to heavily emphasize emotion and convey the play or a scene's message.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fulton|first=A. R.|date=1944|title=Expressionism: Twenty Years After|jstor=27537525|journal=The Sewanee Review|volume=52|issue=3|pages=398–399}}</ref>

German expressionist playwrights:
* [[Georg Kaiser]] (1878)
* [[Ernst Toller]] (1893–1939)
* [[Hans Henny Jahnn]] (1894–1959)
* [[Reinhard Sorge]] (1892–1916)
* [[Bertolt Brecht]] (1898–1956)

Playwrights influenced by Expressionism:
* [[Seán O'Casey]] (1880–1964)<ref>Furness, pp.89–90.</ref>
* [[Eugene O'Neill]] (1885–1953)
* [[Elmer Rice]] (1892–1967)
* [[Tennessee Williams]] (1911–1983)<ref>Stokel, p.1.</ref>
* [[Arthur Miller]] (1915–2005)
* [[Samuel Beckett]] (1906–1989)<ref>Stokel, p.1; Lois Oppenheimer, ''The Painted Word: Samuel Beckett's Dialogue with Art''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000, pp.74, 126–7, 128; Jessica Prinz, "Resonant Images: Beckett and German Expressionism", in ''Samuel Beckett and the Arts: Music, Visual Arts, and Non-Print Media'', ed. Lois Oppenheim. New York: Garland Publishing, 1999.</ref>

====Poetry====
Among the poets associated with German Expressionism were:
* [[Jakob van Hoddis]]
* [[Georg Trakl]]
* [[Walter Rheiner]]
* [[Gottfried Benn]]
* [[Georg Heym]]
* [[Else Lasker-Schüler]]
* [[Ernst Stadler]]
* [[August Stramm]]
* [[Rainer Maria Rilke]] (1875–1926): ''The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge'' (1910)<ref>Ulf Zimmermann, "Expressionism and Döblin's ''Berlin Alexanderplatz'',  in  ''Passion and Rebellion''</ref>
* [[Geo Milev]]
Other poets influenced by expressionism:
* [[T. S. Eliot]]<ref>R. S. Furness, ''Expressionism''. London: Methuen, 1973, p.81.</ref>
* [[Rudolf Broby-Johansen]]<ref name="denstoredanske.dk">{{Cite web|url=http://denstoredanske.dk/Dansk_litteraturs_historie/Dansk_litteraturs_historie_4/Lyrisk_ekspressionisme|title = Lyrisk ekspressionisme &#124; lex.dk| date=29 January 2020 }}</ref>
* [[Tom Kristensen (poet)|Tom Kristensen]]
* [[Pär Lagerkvist]]
* [[Edith Södergran]]

====Prose====
In prose, the early stories and novels of Alfred Döblin were influenced by Expressionism,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cowan|first=Michael|title=Die Tücke Des Körpers: Taming The Nervous Body In Alfred Döblin's 'Die Ermordung Einer Butterblume' And 'Die Tänzerin Und Der Leib'.|journal=Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies|year=2007|volume=43|issue=4|pages=482–498|doi=10.3138/seminar.43.4.482|s2cid=197837029 }}</ref> and [[Franz Kafka]] is sometimes labelled an Expressionist.<ref>Walter H. Sokel, ''The Writer in Extremis''. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1959, pp 3, 29, 84 especially; Richard Murphy, ''Theorizing the Avant-Garde''. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1999, especially pp 41,142.</ref>
Some further writers and works that have been called Expressionist include:
* [[Franz Kafka]] (1883–1924): "[[The Metamorphosis]]" (1915), ''[[The Trial]]'' (1925), ''[[The Castle (novel)|The Castle]]'' (1926)<ref>[[Silvio Vietta]], "Franz Kafka, Expressionism, and Reification" in ''Passion and Rebellion: The Expressionist Heritage'',  eds. Stephen Bronner and Douglas Kellner. New York: Universe Books, 1983 pp,  pp.201–16.</ref>
* [[Alfred Döblin]] (1878–1957): ''Berlin Alexanderplatz'' (1929)<ref>Richard Murphy, ''Theorizing the Avant-Garde: Modernism, Expressionism and the Problem of Postmodernity''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp.74–141;  Ulf Zimmermann, "Expressionism and Döblin's ''Berlin Alexanderplatz'' " in  ''Passion and Rebellion'', pp.217–234.</ref>
* [[Wyndham Lewis]] (1882–1957)<ref>Sheila Watson, ''Wyndham Lewis Expressionist''. Ph.D Thesis, University of Toronto, 1965.</ref>
* [[Djuna Barnes]] (1892–1982): ''[[Nightwood]]'' (1936)<ref>Sherrill E. Grace, ''Regression and Apocalypse: Studies in North American Literary Expressionism''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989, pp.141–162.</ref>
* [[Malcolm Lowry]] (1909–1957): ''[[Under the Volcano]]'' (1947)
* [[Ernest Hemingway]]<ref>Raymond S. Nelson, ''Hemingway, Expressionist Artist''. Ames, Iowa University Press, 1979; Robert Paul Lamb, ''Art matters: Hemingway, Craft, and the Creation of the Modern Short Story''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, c.2010.</ref>
* [[James Joyce]] (1882–1941): "The Nighttown" section of ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' (1922)<ref>Walter H. Sokel, ''The Writer in Extremis''. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1959,  p.1; R. S. Furness, ''Expressionism''. London: Methuen, 1973, p. 81.</ref>
* [[Patrick White]] (1912–1990)<ref>Sherrill E. Grace, p.7.</ref>
* [[D. H. Lawrence]]<ref>Sherrill E. Grace, p.7</ref>
* [[Sheila Watson (writer)|Sheila Watson]]: ''[[The Double Hook|Double Hook]]''<ref>Sherrill E. Grace, pp 185–209.</ref>
* [[Elias Canetti]]: ''[[Auto-da-Fé (novel)|Auto-da-Fé]]''<ref>Sherrill E. Grace, p.12.</ref>
* [[Thomas Pynchon]]<ref>Sherrill E. Grace, p.7, 241–3.</ref>
* [[William Faulkner]]<ref>Jeffrey Stayton, "Southern Expressionism: Apocalyptic Hillscapes, Racial Panoramas, and Lustmord in William Faulkner’s Light in August". ''The Southern Literary Journal'', Volume 42, Number 1, Fall 2009, pp. 32–56.</ref>
* [[James Hanley (novelist)|James Hanley]] (1897–1985)<ref>Ken Worpole, ''Dockers and Detectives''. London: Verso Editions, 1983, pp. 77–93.</ref>
* [[Raul Brandão]] (1867–1930): ''Húmus'' (1917)
* [[Leonid Andreyev]] (1871–1919): ''Devil's Diary'' (1919)

===Music===
{{Main|Expressionism (music)}}
The term expressionism "was probably first applied to music in 1918, especially to Schoenberg", because like the painter Kandinsky he avoided "traditional forms of beauty" to convey powerful feelings in his music.<ref>''The Norton Grove Concise Encyclopedia of Music'', ed Stanley Sadie. New York: Norton1991, p. 244.</ref> [[Arnold Schoenberg]], [[Anton Webern]] and [[Alban Berg]], the members of the [[Second Viennese School]], are important [[Expressionism (music)|Expressionist]]s (Schoenberg was also an expressionist painter).<ref>Theodor Adorno, ''Night Music: Essays on Music'' 1928–1962. (London: Seagull, 2009), p.274-8.</ref>  Other composers that have been associated with expressionism are [[Ernst Krenek|Krenek]] (the Second Symphony), [[Paul Hindemith]] (''The Young Maiden''), [[Igor Stravinsky]] (''Japanese Songs''), [[Alexander Scriabin]] (late piano sonatas) (Adorno 2009, 275). Another significant expressionist was [[Béla Bartók]] in early works, written in the second decade of the 20th century, such as ''[[Bluebeard's Castle]]'' (1911),<ref>Nicole V. Gagné, ''Historical Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Classical Music'' (Plymouth, England: Scarecrow Press, 2011), p.92.</ref> ''[[The Wooden Prince]]'' (1917),<ref>Andrew Clements, "Classical preview: The Wooden Prince", ''The Guardian'', 5 May 2007.</ref> and ''[[The Miraculous Mandarin]]'' (1919).<ref>''[[Cambridge Companions to Music|The Cambridge Companion to Bartók]]'', ed. Amanda Bayley (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p.152.</ref> Important precursors of expressionism are [[Richard Wagner]] (1813–1883), [[Gustav Mahler]] (1860–1911), and [[Richard Strauss]] (1864–1949).<ref>"Expressionism," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2000. {{cite web |url=http://encarta.msn.com |title=MSN Encarta : Online Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Atlas, and Homework |access-date=2012-06-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030221948/http://encarta.msn.com/ |archive-date=2009-10-30}}; Donald Mitchell, ''Gustav Mahler: The Wunderhorn Years: Chronicles and Commentaries''. Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 2005</ref>

[[Theodor Adorno]] describes expressionism as concerned with the unconscious, and states that "the depiction of fear lies at the centre" of expressionist music, with dissonance predominating, so that the "harmonious, affirmative element of art is banished" (Adorno 2009, 275–76). ''[[Erwartung]]'' and ''Die Glückliche Hand'', by Schoenberg, and ''[[Wozzeck]]'', an opera by Alban Berg (based on the play ''[[Woyzeck]]'' by [[Georg Büchner]]), are examples of Expressionist works.<ref>Edward Rothstein ''New York Times'' Review/Opera: "Wozzeck; The Lyric Dresses Up Berg's 1925 Nightmare In a Modern Message". ''New York Times'' February 3, 1994; Theodor Adorno, ''Night Music'' (2009), p.276.</ref> If one were to draw an analogy from paintings, one may describe the expressionist painting technique as the distortion of reality (mostly colors and shapes) to create a nightmarish effect for the particular painting as a whole.  Expressionist music roughly does the same thing, where the dramatically increased dissonance creates, aurally, a nightmarish atmosphere.<ref>Theodor Adorno, ''Night Music'' (2009), pp275-6.</ref>

===Architecture===
{{Main|Expressionist architecture}}
[[File:Potsdam Telegrafenberg asv2023-09 img4.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Einstein Tower|Einsteinturm]] in Potsdam]]
In architecture, two specific buildings are identified as Expressionist: [[Bruno Taut]]'s [[Glass Pavilion]] of the [[Cologne]] [[Werkbund Exhibition (1914)]], and [[Erich Mendelsohn]]'s [[Einstein Tower]] in [[Potsdam]], Germany completed in 1921. The interior of [[Hans Poelzig]]'s Berlin theatre (the [[Grosse Schauspielhaus]]), designed for the director [[Max Reinhardt (theatre director)|Max Reinhardt]], is also cited sometimes. The influential architectural critic and historian [[Sigfried Giedion]], in his book ''Space, Time and Architecture'' (1941), dismissed Expressionist architecture as a part of the development of [[Functionalism (architecture)|functionalism]]. In Mexico, in 1953, German émigré [[Mathias Goeritz]] published the ''Arquitectura Emocional'' ("Emotional Architecture") manifesto with which he declared that "architecture's principal function is emotion".<ref>Mathias Goeritz, "El manifiesto de arquitectura emocional", in Lily Kassner, Mathias Goeritz, UNAM, 2007, p. 272-273</ref> Modern Mexican architect [[Luis Barragán]] adopted the term that influenced his work. The two of them collaborated in the project [[Torres de Satélite]] (1957–58) guided by Goeritz's principles of ''Arquitectura Emocional''.<ref name="Flaherty2016">{{cite book|author=George F. Flaherty|title=Hotel Mexico: Dwelling on the '68 Movement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K6swDwAAQBAJ|access-date=29 May 2018|date=16 August 2016|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-29107-2|page=93}}</ref> It was only during the 1970s that Expressionism in architecture came to be re-evaluated more positively.<ref name="FarmerLouw2003">{{cite book|author1=Ben Farmer |author2= Dr Hentie J Louw |author3= Hentie Louw |author4= Adrian Napper |title= Companion to Contemporary Architectural Thought |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4eCvXjPi49kC|access-date=29 May 2018|date=2 September 2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-98381-0|page=359}}</ref><ref name="Sharp2002">{{cite book|author=Dennis Sharp |title= Twentieth Century Architecture: A Visual History |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mklcuKnGjr4C |access-date= 29 May 2018 |year= 2002 |publisher= Images Publishing |isbn= 978-1-86470-085-5|page=297}}</ref>