Editing Gender equality (section)

===Health and safety===
{{Further|Gender disparities in health}}

====Effect of gender inequality on health====
[[File:2020 Global Response report FGM world map.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Map showing the percentage of women and girls aged 15–49 years (unless otherwise stated) who have undergone FGM/C,  according to the March 2020 Global Response report. Grey countries' data are not covered.]]Social constructs of [[gender]] (that is, cultural ideals of socially acceptable [[masculinity]] and [[femininity]]) often have a negative effect on health. The World Health Organization cites the example of women not being allowed to travel alone outside the home (to go to the hospital), and women being prevented by cultural norms to ask their husbands to use a condom, in cultures which simultaneously encourage male promiscuity, as social norms that harm [[women's health]]. Teenage boys suffering accidents due to social expectations of impressing their peers through [[risk|risk taking]], and men dying at much higher rate from [[lung cancer]] due to [[smoking]], in cultures which link smoking to masculinity, are cited by the WHO as examples of gender norms negatively affecting [[men's health]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gender/genderandhealth/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040707221735/http://www.who.int/gender/genderandhealth/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 7, 2004|title=WHO: World Health Organization|website=Who.int|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref> The World Health Organization has also stated that there is a strong connection between gender socialization and transmission and lack of adequate management of [[HIV/AIDS]].<ref name="ReferenceA" />
[[File:Maternal mortality ratio per 100,000 live births.png|thumb|upright=1.6|[[List of countries by maternal mortality ratio|Maternal mortality ratio]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Maternal mortality ratio |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/maternal-mortality-ratio-who-gho|website=[[Our World in Data]] |access-date=30 March 2024}}</ref>]]
Certain cultural practices, such as [[female genital mutilation]] (FGM), negatively affect women's health.<ref name="who.int">{{cite web | url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation | title=Female genital mutilation | access-date=2019-03-18 | archive-date=2021-01-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129023511/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation | url-status=live }}</ref> Female genital mutilation is the ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the external female genitalia. It is rooted in inequality between the sexes, and constitutes a form of discrimination against women.<ref name="who.int" /> The practice is found in Africa,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unfpa.org/search/content?search_api_fulltext=Female+Genital+Mutilation+Dashboard+%28FGM%29|title=Search Api solr &#124; United Nations Population Fund}}</ref> Asia,  Middle East and Indonesia, and in Europe among immigrant communities from countries in which FGM is common.  [https://www.unfpa.org/news/taking-female-genital-mutilationcutting-out-cultural-mosaic-kenya#:~:text=But%20the%20practice%2C%20condemned%20by,prerequisite%20for%20a%20good%20marriage. UNICEF] estimated in 2016 that 200 million women have undergone the procedure.<ref name="UNICEF2016">{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf |title=Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern |location=New York |publisher=United Nations Children's Fund |date=2016 |access-date=2020-12-26 |archive-date=2017-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210071422/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>[[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Map of countries by fertility rate (2020), according to the [[Population Reference Bureau]]]]According to the World Health Organization, gender equality can improve men's health. The study shows that traditional notions of masculinity have a big impact on men's health. Among European men, [[non-communicable diseases]], such as [[cancer]], [[cardiovascular diseases]], [[Respiratory disease|respiratory illnesses]], and [[diabetes]], account for the vast majority of deaths of men aged 30–59 in Europe which are often linked to unhealthy diets, stress, [[substance abuse]], and other habits, which the report connects to behaviors often stereotypically seen as masculine behaviors like heavy drinking and smoking. Traditional gender [[stereotypes]] that keep men in the role of [[breadwinner]] and [[Discrimination#Sex, sex characteristics, gender, and gender identity|systematic discrimination]] preventing women from equally contributing to their households and participating in the workforce can put additional stress on men, increasing their risk of health issues, and men bolstered by [[cultural norms]] tend to take more risks and engage in [[interpersonal violence]] more often than women, which could result in fatal injuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/2018/09/19/gender-equality-could-help-men-in-europe-live-longer-report|title=Gender equality could help men in Europe live longer: report|date=September 20, 2018|work=[[Euronews]]|access-date=February 6, 2019|archive-date=February 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207015554/https://www.euronews.com/2018/09/19/gender-equality-could-help-men-in-europe-live-longer-report|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/work/1392183/mens-health-is-worse-in-countries-with-less-gender-equality/|title=Countries where men hold the power are really bad for men's health|date=September 17, 2018|work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|access-date=February 6, 2019|archive-date=February 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207072201/https://qz.com/work/1392183/mens-health-is-worse-in-countries-with-less-gender-equality/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/gender-inequality-mens-health/|title=Gender Inequality Is Bad for Men's Health, Report Says|date=September 18, 2018|work=[[Global Citizen Festival|Global Citizen]]|access-date=February 6, 2019|archive-date=February 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207021024/https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/gender-inequality-mens-health/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-determinants/gender/mens-health|title=Men's health and well-being in the WHO European Region|work=[[WHO]]|date=2019-06-06|access-date=2019-02-06|archive-date=2019-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222062158/http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-determinants/gender/mens-health|url-status=live}}</ref>


====Violence against women====
{{Main|Violence against women}}
[[File:MURDER-SCALE-4-2019.jpg|thumb|A map of the world showing murders per 100,000 population committed against women, 2019]]
[[File:FGM road sign, Bakau, Gambia, 2005.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Anti-[[FGM]] road sign, Bakau, Gambia, 2005]]
[[File:Bound feet (X-ray).jpg|thumb|An X-ray of two bound feet. [[Foot binding]] was practiced for centuries in China.]]
[[Violence against women]] (VAW) is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women.{{Refn|Forms of violence against women include [[Sexual violence]] (including [[War Rape]], [[Marital rape]], [[Date rape]] by drugs or alcohol, and [[Child sexual abuse]], the latter often in the context of [[Child marriage]]), [[Domestic violence]], [[Forced marriage]], [[Female genital mutilation]], [[Forced prostitution]], [[Sex trafficking]], [[Honor killing]], [[Dowry killing]], [[Acid attacks]], [[Stoning]], [[Flogging]], [[Forced sterilisation]], [[Forced abortion]], violence related to accusations of witchcraft, mistreatment of widows (e.g. widow inheritance). Fighting against violence against women is considered a key issue for achieving gender equality. The Council of Europe adopted the Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (Istanbul Convention).|group=lower-roman}} This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly ''because'' they are women, or as a result of patriarchal gender constructs.{{Refn|The UN [[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]] defines violence against women as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life" and states that:"violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm|title=Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women|publisher=United Nations General Assembly|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=4 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804222717/http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Violence and mistreatment of women in marriage has come to international attention during the past decades. This includes both violence committed inside marriage ([[domestic violence]]) as well as violence related to marriage customs and traditions (such as [[dowry]], [[bride price]], [[forced marriage]] and [[child marriage]]).

According to some theories, violence against women is often caused by the acceptance of violence by various cultural groups as a means of conflict resolution within intimate relationships. Studies on [[Intimate partner violence]] victimization among ethnic minorities in the United Studies have consistently revealed that immigrants are a high-risk group for intimate violence.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bachman |first=Ronet |date=January 1994 |title=Violence Against Women: A National Crime Victimization Survey Report |url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/digitization/145325ncjrs.pdf |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=August 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810184521/https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/145325NCJRS.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Prevalence and Impact of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Among an Ethnic Minority Population|first1=Sabine|last1=Hellemans|first2=Tom|last2=Loeys|first3=Ann|last3=Buysse|first4=Olivia|last4=De Smet|date=1 November 2015|journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence|volume=30|issue=19|pages=3389–3418|doi=10.1177/0886260514563830|pmid=25519236|hdl=1854/LU-5815751|s2cid=5958973|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/5815751|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801003835/https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/5815751|url-status=live|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

In countries where gang murders, armed kidnappings, civil unrest, and other similar acts are rare, the vast majority of murdered women are killed by partners/ex-partners.{{Refn|As of 2004–2009, former and current partners were responsible for more than 80% of all cases of [[femicide|murders of women]] in [[Cyprus]], [[France]], and [[Portugal]].<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/H-Research_Notes/SAS-Research-Note-14.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403000428/http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/H-Research_Notes/SAS-Research-Note-14.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 3, 2012|title=Femicide: A Global Problem|date=February 2012|website=Small Arms Survey|publisher=Research Notes: Armed Violence}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} By contrast, in countries with a high level of organized criminal activity and gang violence, murders of women are more likely to occur in a public sphere, often in a general climate of indifference and impunity.<ref name=":1" /> In addition, many countries do not have adequate comprehensive data collection on such murders, aggravating the problem.<ref name=":1" />

In some parts of the world, various forms of violence against women are tolerated and accepted as parts of everyday life.{{Refn|According to UNFPA:<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/gender/practices.htm|title=Gender equality|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=20 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020025509/http://www.unfpa.org/gender/practices.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
:"In some developing countries, practices that subjugate and harm women – such as wife-beating, killings in the name of honour, female genital mutilation/cutting and dowry deaths – are condoned as being part of the natural order of things."|group=lower-roman}}

In most countries, it is only in more recent decades that domestic violence against women has received significant legal attention. The [[Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence|Istanbul Convention]] acknowledges the long tradition of European countries of ignoring this form of violence.{{Refn|In its [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm explanatory report] at para 219, it states:
:"There are many examples from past practice in Council of Europe member states that show that exceptions to the prosecution of such cases were made, either in law or in practice, if victim and perpetrator were, for example, married to each other or had been in a relationship. The most prominent example is rape within marriage, which for a long time had not been recognised as rape because of the relationship between victim and perpetrator."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm|title=Explanatory Report to the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210)|website=Conventions.coe.int|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=20 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720234156/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In ''Opuz v Turkey'', the [[European Court of Human Rights]] recognized violence against women as a form discrimination against women: "[T]he Court considers that the violence suffered by the applicant and her mother may be regarded as ''gender-based violence which is a form of discrimination against women''."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-92945#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-92945%22]}|title=Case of Opuz v. Turkey|date=September 2009|website=European Court of Human Rights|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref> This is also the position of the Istanbul Convention which reads:"Article 3 – Definitions, For the purpose of this Convention: a "violence against women" is understood as a violation of human rights and ''a form of discrimination against women'' [...]".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm|author=Council of Europe|title=Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210)|website=Conventions.coe.int|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=23 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923210455/http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

In some cultures, acts of violence against women are seen as crimes against the male 'owners' of the woman, such as husband, father or male relatives, rather the woman herself. This leads to practices where men inflict violence upon women in order to get revenge on male members of the women's family.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2012/12/unw-legislation-supplement-en%20pdf.pdf|title=Supplement to the Handbook for Legislation on Violence Against Women: Harmful Practices Against Women|date=2012|website=UN Women|access-date=2015-06-10|archive-date=2015-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610131259/http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2012/12/unw-legislation-supplement-en%20pdf.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Such practices include [[Types of rape#Payback rape|payback rape]], a form of rape specific to certain cultures, particularly the [[Pacific Islands]], which consists of the rape of a female, usually by a group of several males, as revenge for acts committed by members of her family, such as her father or brothers, with the rape being meant to humiliate the father or brothers, as punishment for their prior behavior towards the perpetrators.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://waaiabulletin.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/png_activist_toolkit_16_days_2009_-_iwd_2010.pdf|title=Many Voices One Message: Stop Violence Against Women in PNG|date=2009–2010|website=Activist Toolkit, Amnesty International|access-date=2017-03-28|archive-date=2017-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153358/https://waaiabulletin.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/png_activist_toolkit_16_days_2009_-_iwd_2010.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Richard A. Posner]] writes that "Traditionally, rape was the offense of depriving a father or husband of a valuable asset — his wife's chastity or his daughter's virginity".<ref>''Sex and Reason'', by Richard A. Posner, page 94.</ref> Historically, rape was seen in many cultures (and is still seen today in some societies) as a crime against the [[Family honor|honor of the family]], rather than against the self-determination of the woman. As a result, victims of rape may face violence, in extreme cases even honor killings, at the hands of their family members.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/honourcrimes/crimesofhonour_1.shtml|title=Ethics: Honour crimes|website=Bbc.co.uk|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=21 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053506/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/honourcrimes/crimesofhonour_1.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13760895|title=Libya rape victims 'face honour killings'|website=BBC News|access-date=14 June 2015|date=2011-06-14|last1=Harter|first1=Pascale|archive-date=2013-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921101600/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13760895|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Catharine MacKinnon]] argues that in male dominated societies, sexual intercourse is imposed on women in a coercive and unequal way, creating a continuum of victimization, where women have few positive sexual experiences.{{Refn|She writes "To know what is wrong with rape, know what is right about sex. If this, in turn, is difficult, the difficulty is as instructive as the difficulty men have in telling the difference when women see one. Perhaps the wrong of rape has proved so difficult to define because the unquestionable starting point has been that rape is defined as distinct from intercourse, while for women it is difficult to distinguish the two under conditions of male dominance."<ref group=upper-roman>''Toward a Feminist Theory of the State'', by Catharine A. MacKinnon, pp 174</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Socialization within rigid gender constructs often creates an environment where sexual violence is common.{{Refn|According to the World Health Organization: "Sexual violence is also more likely to occur where beliefs in male sexual entitlement are strong, where gender roles are more rigid, and in countries experiencing high rates of other types of violence."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/summary_en.pdf|title=World report on violence and health: summary|website=World Health Organization|date=2002|access-date=2020-10-04|archive-date=2019-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190305201126/https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/summary_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} One of the challenges of dealing with sexual violence is that in many societies women are perceived as being readily available for sex, and men are seen as entitled to their bodies, until and unless women object.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/32000/ior530012011en.pdf|title=Rape and Sexual Violence: Human rights law and standards in the international criminal court|date=1 March 2011|website=Amnesty International|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=13 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613020021/https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/32000/ior530012011en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/64000/eur270022007en.pdf|title=Hungary: Cries Unheard: The Failure To Protect Women From Rape And Sexual Violence In The Home|publisher=Amnesty International|date=2007|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=13 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613012347/https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/64000/eur270022007en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Refn|Rebecca Cook wrote in ''Submission of Interights to the European Court of Human Rights in the case of [[M.C. v. Bulgaria]], 12 April 2003'': "The equality approach starts by examining not whether the woman said 'no', but whether she said 'yes'. Women do not walk around in a state of constant consent to sexual activity unless and until they say 'no', or offer resistance to anyone who targets them for sexual activity. The right to physical and sexual autonomy means that they have to affirmatively consent to sexual activity."|group=lower-roman}}

=====Types of VAW=====

Violence against women may be classified according to different approaches.
* '''WHO's life cycle typology''':

The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) has developed a typology of violence against women based on their cultural life cycles.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''Phase''' || '''Type of violence'''
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Pre-birth || Sex-selective abortion; effects of battering during pregnancy on birth outcomes
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Infancy || Female infanticide; physical, sexual and psychological abuse
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Girlhood || Child marriage; female genital mutilation; physical, sexual and psychological abuse; incest; child prostitution and pornography
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Adolescence and adulthood || Dating and courtship violence (e.g. acid throwing and date rape); economically coerced sex (e.g. school girls having sex with "sugar daddies" in return for school fees); incest; sexual abuse in the workplace; rape; sexual harassment; forced prostitution and pornography; trafficking in women; partner violence; marital rape; dowry abuse and murders; partner homicide; psychological abuse; abuse of women with disabilities; forced pregnancy
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| Elderly || Forced "suicide" or homicide of widows for economic reasons; sexual, physical and psychological abuse<ref name="WHO_VAW">{{cite book | last = WHO | author-link = World Health Organization | title = Violence against women: Definition and scope of the problem, 1, 1-3 | url = https://www.who.int/gender/violence/v4.pdf | publisher = [[World Health Organization]] | date = July 1997 | access-date = 30 November 2013 | archive-date = 30 November 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181130173014/http://www.who.int/gender/violence/v4.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>
|}

Significant progress towards the protection of women from violence has been made on international level as a product of collective effort of lobbying by many women's rights movements; international organizations to civil society groups. As a result, worldwide governments and international as well as civil society organizations actively work to combat violence against women through a variety of programs. Among the major achievements of the women's rights movements against violence on girls and women, the landmark accomplishments are the "[[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]]" that implies "political will towards addressing VAW " and the legal binding agreement, "the Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women ([[CEDAW]])".<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Rosche | first1 = Daniela | last2 = Dawe | first2 = Alexandra | title = Oxfam Briefing Note: Ending violence against women the case for a comprehensive international action plan | page = 2 | publisher = [[Oxfam|Oxfam GB]] | location = Oxford | year = 2013 | url = http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bn-ending-violence-against-women-action-plan-220213-en.pdf |isbn=978-1-78077-263-9 | access-date = 2 December 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170925212852/https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bn-ending-violence-against-women-action-plan-220213-en.pdf | archive-date = 25 September 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref> In addition, the UN General Assembly resolution also designated 25 November as [[International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women]].<ref>{{cite book | last = UN | author-link = United Nations | title = International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women | url = https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/news/vawd.html | via = un.org | publisher = [[United Nations]] | date = 17 December 1999 | access-date = 3 April 2016 | archive-date = 13 February 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210213161934/https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/news/vawd.html | url-status = live }}</ref>
* '''''The Lancet'''s over time typology''':

A typology similar to the WHO's from an article on violence against women published in the academic journal ''[[The Lancet]]'' shows the different types of violence perpetrated against women according to what time period in a women's life the violence takes place.<ref name="VAM: Global scope & magnitude">{{cite journal | last1 = Watts | first1 = Charlotte | last2 = Zimmerman | first2 = Cathy | title = Violence against women: global scope and magnitude | journal = [[The Lancet]] | volume = 359 | issue = 9313 | pages = 1232–1237 | publisher = [[Elsevier]] | pmid = 11955557 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08221-1 | date = 6 April 2002 | s2cid = 38436965 }}</ref> However, it also classifies the types of violence according to the perpetrator. One important point to note is that more of the types of violence inflicted on women are perpetrated by someone the woman knows, either a family member or intimate partner, rather than a stranger.
* '''Council of Europe's nine forms of violence''':

The Gender Equality Commission of the [[Council of Europe]] identifies nine forms of violence against women based on subject and context rather than life cycle or time period:<ref name="Hagemann-White">{{cite web |url=https://rm.coe.int/16805915e9 |title=Analytical study of the results of the 4th round of monitoring the implementation of Recommendation Rec(2002)5 on the protection of women against violence in Council of Europe member states |first=Carol |last=Hagemann-White |pages=7, 8, 11 |publisher=Council of Europe Equality Division |date=February 2014 |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803211102/https://rm.coe.int/16805915e9 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://edoc.coe.int/en/fundamental-freedoms/5949-state-of-democracy-human-rights-and-the-rule-of-law-in-europe.html |title=State of democracy, human rights and the rule of law in Europe (2014) |first=Thorbjørn |last=Jagland |author-link=Thorbjørn Jagland |work=Report by the Secretary General of the Council of Europe |page=48 |publisher=Council of Europe |date=May 2014 |access-date=5 April 2020 |archive-date=24 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424094422/https://edoc.coe.int/en/fundamental-freedoms/5949-state-of-democracy-human-rights-and-the-rule-of-law-in-europe.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 'Violence within the family or domestic violence'
* 'Rape and sexual violence'
* 'Sexual harassment'
* 'Violence in institutional environments'
* 'Female genital mutilation'
* 'Forced marriages'
* 'Violence in conflict and post-conflict situations'
* 'Killings in the name of honour'
* 'Failure to respect freedom of choice with regard to reproduction'

=====Violence against trans women=====
{{further|Transgender women}}

Killings of [[transgender]] individuals, especially transgender women, continue to rise yearly. 2020 saw a record 350 transgender individuals murdered, with means including suffocation and burning alive.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiewareham/2020/11/11/350-transgender-people-have-been-murdered-in-2020-transgender-day-of-remembrance-list/?sh=e5a18d965a61 |title=Murdered, Suffocated and Burned Alive - 350 Transgender People Killed in 2020 |last=Wareham |first=Jamie |date=November 11, 2020 |website=Forbes |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=February 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219142029/https://gum.criteo.com/syncframe?origin=publishertag&topUrl=www.forbes.com |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2009, United States data showed that transgender people are likely to experience a broad range of violence in the entirety of their lifetime. Violence against trans women in Puerto Rico started to make headlines after being treated as "An Invisible Problem" decades before. It was reported at the 58th Convention of the Puerto Rican Association that many transgender women face institutional, emotional, and structural obstacles. Most trans women do not have access to health care for [[STD prevention]] and are not educated on violence prevention, mental health, and social services that could benefit them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Madera|first1=Sheilla L.|last2=Padilla|first2=Mark|last3=Varas-Díaz|first3=Nelson|last4=Neilands|first4=Torsten|last5=Guzzi|first5=Ana C. Vasques|last6=Florenciani|first6=Ericka J.|last7=Ramos-Pibernus|first7=Alíxida|date=2017-01-28|title=Experiences of Violence Among Transgender Women in Puerto Rico: An Underestimated Problem|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|volume=64|issue=2|pages=209–217|doi=10.1080/00918369.2016.1174026|issn=0091-8369|pmc=5546874|pmid=27054395}}</ref>

[[Trans woman|Trans women]] in the United States have been the subject of anti-trans stigma, which includes criminalization, dehumanization, and violence against those who identify as transgender. From a societal standpoint, a trans person can be victim to the stigma due to lack of family support, issues with health care and social services, [[police brutality]], discrimination in the work place, cultural marginalisation, poverty, sexual assault, assault, bullying, and mental trauma. The [[Human Rights Campaign]] tracked over 128 cases{{Clarify|reason=so it was 129 cases? or...?|date=April 2019}} that ended in fatality against transgender people in the US from 2013 to 2018, of which eighty percent included a trans woman of color. In the US, high rates of [[Intimate partner violence|Intimate Partner violence]] impact trans women differently because they are facing discrimination from police and health providers, and alienation from family. In 2018, it was reported that 77 percent of transgender people who were linked to sex work and 72 percent of transgender people who were homeless, were victims of intimate partner violence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrc.org/resources/a-national-epidemic-fatal-anti-transgender-violence-in-america-in-2018/|title=A National Epidemic: Fatal Anti-Transgender Violence in America|last=Campaign|first=Human Rights|website=Human Rights Campaign|language=en|access-date=2019-02-25|archive-date=2019-03-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301202408/https://www.hrc.org/resources/a-national-epidemic-fatal-anti-transgender-violence-in-america-in-2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Reproductive and sexual health and rights====
{{Main|Reproductive health|Reproductive rights}}
{{Further|Forced sterilization|Forced pregnancy|Forced abortion}}
[[File:Maternal mortality rate worldwide.jpg|thumb|Global maternal mortality rate per 100,000 live births (2010)<ref name=CIA>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html |title=Country Comparison: Maternal Mortality Rate |website=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209080903/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html |archive-date=December 9, 2020}}</ref>]]
[[File:Maternal health (4798750001).jpg|thumb|In 2010, [[Sierra Leone]] launched free healthcare for pregnant and breastfeeding women]]

The importance of women having the right and possibility to have control over their body, reproduction decisions, and sexuality, and the need for gender equality in order to achieve these goals are recognized as crucial by the [[Fourth World Conference on Women]] in Beijing and the UN [[International Conference on Population and Development]] Program of Action. The World Health Organization (WHO) has stated that promotion of gender equality is crucial in the fight against [[HIV/AIDS]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gender/hiv_aids/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030727141344/http://www.who.int/gender/hiv_aids/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 27, 2003|title=WHO: World Health Organization|website=Who.int|access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref>

[[Maternal mortality]] is a major problem in many parts of the world. [[UNFPA]] states that countries have an obligation to protect women's [[right to health]], but many countries do not do that.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/reducing_mm.pdf|title=Reducing Maternal Mortality: The contribution of the right to the highest attainable standard of health|last1=Hunt|first1=Paul|last2=Mezquita de Bueno|first2=Julia|publisher=University of Essex|year=2010|location=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=2017-03-28|archive-date=2017-11-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107032623/http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/reducing_mm.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Maternal mortality is considered today not just an issue of development but also an issue of [[human rights]].{{Refn|[[UNFPA]] says that, "since 1990, the world has seen a 45 per cent decline in maternal mortality – an enormous achievement. But in spite of these gains, almost 800 women still die every day from causes related to pregnancy or childbirth. This is about one woman every two minutes."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/maternal-health|title=Maternal health: UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129122355/https://www.unfpa.org/maternal-health|url-status=live}}</ref> According to UNFPA:<ref name=":3" />

:"Preventable maternal mortality occurs where there is a failure to give effect to the rights of women to health, equality, and non-discrimination. Preventable maternal mortality also often represents a violation of a woman's right to life."|group=lower-roman}}

The right to reproductive and sexual autonomy is denied to women in many parts of the world, through practices such as [[forced sterilization]], forced/coerced sexual partnering (e.g. [[forced marriage]], [[child marriage]]), criminalization of consensual sexual acts (such as [[sex outside marriage]]), lack of criminalization of [[marital rape]], violence in regard to the choice of partner ([[honor killings]] as punishment for 'inappropriate' relations).{{Refn|Amnesty International's Secretary General has stated that: "It is unbelievable that in the twenty-first century some countries are condoning child marriage and marital rape while others are outlawing abortion, sex outside marriage and same-sex sexual activity – even punishable by death."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/sexual-and-reproductive-rights-under-threat-worldwide-2014-03-06|title=Sexual and reproductive rights under threat worldwide|publisher=Amnesty International|date=March 6, 2014|access-date=2014-07-15|archive-date=2014-12-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206225115/http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/sexual-and-reproductive-rights-under-threat-worldwide-2014-03-06|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} The sexual health of women is often poor in societies where a woman's right to control her sexuality is not recognized.{{Refn|High Commissioner for Human Rights [[Navi Pillay]] has called for full respect and recognition of women's autonomy and sexual and reproductive health rights, stating:

:"Violations of women's human rights are often linked to their sexuality and reproductive role. Women are frequently treated as property, they are sold into marriage, into trafficking, into sexual slavery. Violence against women frequently takes the form of sexual violence. Victims of such violence are often accused of promiscuity and held responsible for their fate, while infertile women are rejected by husbands, families, and communities. In many countries, married women may not refuse to have sexual relations with their husbands, and often have no say in whether they use contraception."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.chr.up.ac.za/images/files/news/news_2012/Navi%20Pillay%20Lecture%2015%20May%202012.pdf|title=Valuing Women as Autonomous Beings: Women's sexual and reproductive rights|last=Pillay|first=Navi|date=May 15, 2012|website=University of Pretoria, Centre for Human Rights|access-date=July 15, 2014|archive-date=March 13, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313210726/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/images/files/news/news_2012/Navi%20Pillay%20Lecture%2015%20May%202012.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
These practices infringe on the right of achieving reproductive and sexual health.|group=lower-roman}}

[[Adolescent]] girls have the highest risk of sexual coercion, sexual ill health, and negative reproductive outcomes. The risks they face are higher than those of boys and men; this increased risk is partly due to gender inequity (different socialization of boys and girls, gender based violence, child marriage) and partly due to biological factors.{{Refn|Females' risk of acquiring sexually transmitted infections during unprotected sexual relations is two to four times that of males'.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/resources/giving-special-attention-girls-and-adolescents|title=Giving Special Attention to Girls and Adolescents|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=7 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707005611/http://www.unfpa.org/resources/giving-special-attention-girls-and-adolescents|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

=====Family planning and abortion=====
[[File:Familiy Planning Ethiopia (bad effects).jpg|thumb|Placard showing negative effects of lack of family planning and having too many [[child]]ren and [[infant]]s ([[Ethiopia]])]]

[[Family planning]] is the practice of freely deciding the number of children one has and the intervals between their births, particularly by means of contraception or voluntary sterilization. Abortion is the induced termination of pregnancy. [[Abortion law]]s vary significantly by country. The availability of contraception, sterilization and abortion is dependent on laws, as well as social, cultural and religious norms. Some countries have liberal laws regarding these issues, but in practice it is very difficult to access such services due to doctors, pharmacists and other social and medical workers being [[conscientious objector]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/11/italian-gynaecologists-refuse-abortions-miscarriages|title=Seven in 10 Italian gynaecologists refuse to carry out abortions|first1=Stephanie Kirchgaessner Pamela|last1=Duncan|first2=Alberto|last2=Nardelli|first3=Delphine|last3=Robineau|date=11 March 2016|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420115157/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/11/italian-gynaecologists-refuse-abortions-miscarriages|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/doctors-refusal-to-perform-abortions-divides-croatia-02-13-2017 |title=Doctors' Refusal to Perform Abortions Divides Croatia |website=Balkan Insight |access-date=14 November 2017 |date=2017-02-14 |archive-date=2018-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116141407/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/doctors-refusal-to-perform-abortions-divides-croatia-02-13-2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Family planning is particularly important from a women's rights perspective, as having very many pregnancies, especially in areas where malnutrition is present, can seriously endanger women's health. UNFA writes that "Family planning is central to gender equality and women's empowerment, and it is a key factor in reducing poverty".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/family-planning|title=Family planning: UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=30 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330132526/https://www.unfpa.org/family-planning|url-status=live}}</ref>

Family planning is often opposed by governments who have strong [[natalist]] policies. During the 20th century, such examples have included the aggressive natalist policies from [[communist Romania]] and [[communist Albania]]. State mandated [[forced marriage]] was also practiced by some authoritarian governments as a way to meet population targets: the [[Khmer Rouge]] regime in [[Cambodia]] systematically forced people into marriages, in order to increase the population and continue the revolution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.d.dccam.org/Abouts/Intern/Natalae_Forced_marriage.pdf|first=Natalae|last=Anderson|title=Documentation Center of Cambodia, ''Memorandum: Charging Forced Marriage as a Crime Against Humanity,''|date=September 22, 2010|website=D.dccam.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153617/http://www.d.dccam.org/Abouts/Intern/Natalae_Forced_marriage.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> By contrast, the [[one child policy|one-child policy]] of China (1979–2015) included punishments for families with more than one child and [[forced abortion]]s. The fine is so-called "social maintenance fee" and it is the punishment for the families who have more than one child. According to the policy, the families who violate the law may bring the burden to the whole sociey. Therefore, the social maintenance fee will be used for the operation of the basic government.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Quanbao |last2=Liu |first2=Yixiao |date=2016-10-01 |title=Low fertility and concurrent birth control policy in China |journal=The History of the Family |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=551–577 |doi=10.1080/1081602X.2016.1213179 |s2cid=157905310 |issn=1081-602X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Some governments have sought to prevent certain ethnic or social groups from reproduction. Such policies were carried out against ethnic minorities in Europe and North America in the 20th century, and more recently in Latin America against the Indigenous population in the 1990s; in [[Peru]], President [[Alberto Fujimori]] (in office from 1990 to 2000) has been accused of [[genocide]] and [[crimes against humanity]] as a result of a sterilization program put in place by his administration targeting indigenous people (mainly the [[Quechua people|Quechuas]] and the [[Aymara people|Aymaras]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2148793.stm|title=Mass sterilisation scandal shocks Peru|date=24 July 2002|website=News.bbc.co.uk|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521121426/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2148793.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Investigation and prosecution of crimes against women and girls====
Human rights organizations have expressed concern about the legal [[impunity]] of perpetrators of crimes against women, with such crimes being often ignored by authorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/ImpunityForVAWGlobalConcern.aspx|title=Impunity for violence against women is a global concern|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=10 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113251/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/ImpunityForVAWGlobalConcern.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> This is especially the case with murders of women in [[Latin America]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/CDDandCMDPDH_forthesession_Mexico_CEDAW52.pdf|title=Femicide and Impunity in Mexico: A context of structural and generalized violence|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424140151/https://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/CDDandCMDPDH_forthesession_Mexico_CEDAW52.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/4/femicide-in-latin-america|title=Femicide in Latin America|newspaper=Un Women – Headquarters|date=4 April 2013 |access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=7 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207042250/http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/4/femicide-in-latin-america|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cgrs.uchastings.edu/our-work/central-america-femicides-and-gender-based-violence|title=Central America: Femicides and Gender-Based Violence|website=Cgrs.uchastings.edu|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714224933/http://cgrs.uchastings.edu/our-work/central-america-femicides-and-gender-based-violence|url-status=live}}</ref> In particular, there is impunity in regard to [[domestic violence]].{{Refn|High Commissioner for Human Rights, [[Navi Pillay]], has stated on domestic violence against women: "The reality for most victims, including victims of honor killings, is that state institutions fail them and that most perpetrators of domestic violence can rely on a culture of impunity for the acts they commit – acts which would often be considered as crimes, and be punished as such, if they were committed against strangers."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=9869&LangID=E|title=High Commissioner speaks out against domestic violence and "honour killing" on occasion of International Women's Day"|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714182718/http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=9869&LangID=E|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

Women are often, in law or in practice, unable to access legal institutions. UN Women has said that: "Too often, justice institutions, including the police and the courts, deny women justice".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://progress.unwomen.org/|title=Progress of the World's Women 2015–2016|website=My Favorite News|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=23 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423135248/http://progress.unwomen.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> Often, women are denied legal recourse because the state institutions themselves are structured and operate in ways incompatible with genuine justice for women who experience violence.{{Refn|According to Amnesty International, "Women who are victims of gender-related violence often have little recourse because many state agencies are themselves guilty of gender bias and discriminatory practices."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/women-s-rights/violence-against-women/violence-against-women-information|title=Violence Against Women Information|website=Amnesty International USA|access-date=2015-12-19|archive-date=2016-04-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404225053/http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/women-s-rights/violence-against-women/violence-against-women-information|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

====Harmful traditional practices====
[[File:Say no to dowry.jpg|thumb|Anti-dowry poster in [[Bangalore, India|Bangalore]], India]]
[[File:FGM prevalence UNICEF 2016.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=map|FGM in Africa, Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen, as of 2015 ([[Special:Filepath/AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg|map of Africa]]).<ref name=UNICEF2016/>]]
"Harmful traditional practices" refer to forms of violence which are committed in certain communities often enough to become cultural practice, and accepted for that reason. Young women are the main victims of such acts, although men can also be affected.<ref name="NHS Traditional">{{cite web|url=http://www.gbv.scot.nhs.uk/gbv/harmful-traditional-practices|title=National Gender Based Violence & Health Programme|website=Gbv.scot.nhs.uk|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=8 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208001701/http://www.gbv.scot.nhs.uk/gbv/harmful-traditional-practices|url-status=live}}</ref> They occur in an environment where women and girls have unequal rights and opportunities.<ref name="ohchr.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet23en.pdf|title=Fact Sheet No.23, Harmful Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=10 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910231123/https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet23en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
These practices include, according to the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]]:<ref name="ohchr.org" />

{{Blockquote|[[female genital mutilation]] (FGM); forced feeding of women; early marriage; the various taboos or practices which prevent women from controlling their own fertility; nutritional taboos and traditional birth practices; son preference and its implications for the status of the girl child; female infanticide; early pregnancy; and dowry price}}

Son preference refers to a cultural preference for sons over daughters, and manifests itself through practices such as sex selective abortion; female infanticide; or abandonment, neglect or abuse of girl-children.<ref name="ohchr.org" />

Abuses regarding nutrition are taboos in regard to certain foods, which result in poor nutrition of women, and may endanger their health, especially if pregnant.<ref name="ohchr.org" />

The [[caste system in India]] which leads to [[untouchability]] (the practice of ostracizing a group by segregating them from the mainstream society) often interacts with gender discrimination, leading to a double discrimination faced by [[Dalit]] women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/docs/ngos/chrgj-hrw.pdf|title=CASTE DISCRIMINATION AGAINST DALITS OR SO-CALLED UNTOUCHABLES IN INDIA|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=28 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728154019/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/docs/ngos/chrgj-hrw.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In a 2014 survey, 27% of Indians admitted to practicing untouchability.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/one-in-four-indians-admit-to-practising-untouchability-biggest-caste-survey/|title=Biggest caste survey: One in four Indians admit to practising untouchability|date=29 November 2014|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=18 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171218114401/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/one-in-four-indians-admit-to-practising-untouchability-biggest-caste-survey/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Traditional customs regarding birth sometimes endanger the mothers. Births in parts of Africa are often attended by traditional birth attendants (TBAs), who sometimes perform rituals that are dangerous to the health of the mother. In many societies, a difficult labour is believed to be a divine punishment for marital infidelity, and such women face abuse and are pressured to "confess" to the infidelity.<ref name="ohchr.org" />

Tribal traditions can be harmful to males; for instance, the [[Satere-Mawe]] tribe use [[bullet ant]]s as an [[initiation rite]]. Men must wear gloves with hundreds of bullet ants woven in for ten minutes: the ants' stings cause severe pain and paralysis. This experience must be completed twenty times for boys to be considered "warriors".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/travel/Holidays/Wildlife/article77936.ece|title=Bitten by the Amazon|last=Backshall|first=Steve|date=6 January 2008|newspaper=The Sunday Times|location=London|access-date=13 July 2013|archive-date=22 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222144437/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/travel/Holidays/Wildlife/article77936.ece|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Other harmful traditional practices include [[marriage by abduction]], ritualized [[sexual slavery]] ([[Devadasi]], [[Trokosi]]), [[breast ironing]] and [[widow inheritance]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-13-0-000-11-Web/Anth-13-2-000-11-Abst-Pdf/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N-Tt.pdf|title=Violation of Women's Rights by Harmful Traditional Practices|first1=Newman|last1=Wadesango|first2=Symphorosa|last2=Rembe|first3=Owence|last3=Chabaya|website=Krepublishers.com|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=24 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024141418/http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-13-0-000-11-Web/Anth-13-2-000-11-Abst-Pdf/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N/Anth-13-2-121-11-720-Wadesango-N-Tt.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/elim-disc-viol-girlchild/ExpertPapers/EP.4%20%20%20Raswork.pdf|title=The impact of harmful traditional practices on the girl child|website=Un.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=3 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703173157/https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/elim-disc-viol-girlchild/ExpertPapers/EP.4%20%20%20Raswork.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/HarmfulPractices/GenderEmpowermentandDevelopment.pdf|title=Breast Ironing... A Harmful Practice That Has Been Silenced For Too Long|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=26 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226024853/http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/HarmfulPractices/GenderEmpowermentandDevelopment.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kit.nl/net/KIT_Publicaties_output/ShowFile2.aspx?e=1415|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819085837/http://www.kit.nl/net/KIT_Publicaties_output/ShowFile2.aspx?e=1415|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 August 2014|title=Exchange on HIV/AIDS, Sexuality and Gender|date=2008|access-date=14 November 2017}}</ref>

=====Female genital mutilation=====
[[File:Campaign road sign against female genital mutilation (cropped) 2.jpg|thumb|left|Road sign near [[Kapchorwa]], [[Uganda]], 2004]]
[[UNFPA]] and [[UNICEF]] regard the practice of [[female genital mutilation]] as "a manifestation of deeply entrenched gender inequality. It persists for many reasons. In some societies, for example, it is considered a rite of passage. In others, it is seen as a prerequisite for marriage. In some communities – whether Christian, Jewish, Muslim – the practice may even be attributed to religious beliefs."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/female-genital-mutilation|title=Female genital mutilation|website=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=April 25, 2021|archive-date=May 27, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527085515/https://www.unfpa.org/female-genital-mutilation|url-status=live}}</ref>

An estimated 125&nbsp;million women and girls living today have undergone FGM in the 29 countries where data exist. Of these, about half live in Egypt and Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/publications/unfpa-unicef-joint-programme-female-genital-mutilationcutting-accelerating-change|title=UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=4 April 2017|archive-date=9 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409002244/http://www.unfpa.org/publications/unfpa-unicef-joint-programme-female-genital-mutilationcutting-accelerating-change|url-status=live}}</ref> It is most commonly carried out on girls between infancy and 15 years old.<ref name="NHS Traditional" />

=====Forced marriage and child marriage=====
{{Main|Forced marriage|Child marriage}}
[[File:Girl Summit - 22nd July in London (14498368279).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|Poster against child and forced marriage]]
Early marriage, child marriage or [[forced marriage]] is prevalent in parts of Asia and Africa. The majority of victims seeking advice are female and aged between 18 and 23.<ref name="NHS Traditional" /> Such marriages can have harmful effects on a girl's education and development, and may expose girls to social isolation or abuse.<ref name="ohchr.org" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58008.html|title=Child marriage|date=22 October 2014|website=UNICEF|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=7 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907061839/https://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58008.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/topic/womens-rights/child-marriage|title=Child Marriage|website=Human Rights Watch|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712041122/https://www.hrw.org/topic/womens-rights/child-marriage|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 2013 UN Resolution on Child, Early and Forced Marriage calls for an end to the practice, and states that "Recognizing that child, early and forced marriage is a harmful practice that violates abuses, or impairs human rights and is linked to and perpetuates other harmful practices and human rights violations, that these violations have a disproportionately negative impact on women and girls [...]".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/pmnch/media/events/2014/child_marriage.pdf?ua=1|format=PDF|title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly : 69/XX. Child, Early and Forced Marriage|website=Who.int|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153359/http://www.who.int/pmnch/media/events/2014/child_marriage.pdf?ua=1|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite a near-universal commitment by governments to end child marriage, "one in three girls in developing countries (excluding China) will probably be married before they are 18."<ref name="unfpa.org2">{{cite news|url=http://www.unfpa.org/end-child-marriage|title=End Child Marriage|newspaper=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=14 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714002638/http://www.unfpa.org/end-child-marriage|url-status=live}}</ref> [[UNFPA]] states that, "over 67 million women 20–24 year old in 2010 had been married as girls. Half were in Asia, one-fifth in Africa. In the next decade 14.2 million girls under 18 will be married every year; this translates into 39,000 girls married each day. This will rise to an average of 15.1 million girls a year, starting in 2021 until 2030, if present trends continue."<ref name="unfpa.org2" />

=====Bride price=====
{{Main|Bride price}}
[[Bride price]] (also called bridewealth or bride token) is money, property, or other form of wealth paid by a groom or his family to the parents of the bride. This custom often leads to women having reduced ability to control their fertility. For instance, in northern Ghana, the payment of bride price signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control face threats, violence and reprisals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.popcouncil.org/uploads/pdfs/councilarticles/sfp/SFP301Bawah.pdf|title=Women's Fears and Men's Anxieties : The Impact of Family Planning on Gender Relations in Northern Ghana|website=Popcouncil.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420115200/https://www.popcouncil.org/research/womens-fears-and-mens-anxieties-the-impact-of-family-planning-on-gender-rel|url-status=live}}</ref> The custom of bride price has been criticized as contributing to the mistreatment of women in marriage, and preventing them from leaving abusive marriages. [[UN Women]] recommended its abolition, and stated that: "Legislation should ... State that divorce shall not be contingent upon the return of bride price but such provisions shall not be interpreted to limit women's right to divorce; State that a perpetrator of [[domestic violence]], including marital rape, cannot use the fact that he paid bride price as a defence to a domestic violence charge."<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

The custom of bride price can also curtail the free movement of women: if a wife wants to leave her husband, he may demand back the bride price that he had paid to the woman's family; and the woman's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back, making it difficult for women to move out of violent husbands' homes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Equality Now (2007) Protecting the girl child: Using the law to end child, early and forced marriage and related human rights violations|url=http://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf|website=Equalitynow.org|date=7 January 2014 |access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=28 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528120452/http://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Lelieveld, M.|date=2011|title=Child protection in the Somali region of Ethiopia. A report for the BRIDGES project Piloting the delivery of quality education services in the developing regional states of Ethiopia|access-date=17 April 2015|url=http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/FINALChild_Protection_in_the_Somali_Region_30511.pdf|website=Savethechildren.org.uk|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095119/http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/FINALChild_Protection_in_the_Somali_Region_30511.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Stange, Mary Zeiss |author2=Carol K. Oyster |author3=Jane E. Sloan|title=Encyclopedia of Women in Today's World, Volume 1|year=2011|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-4129-7685-5|page=496}}</ref>