Editing Genetic transformation (section)

===Yeast===
Most species of [[yeast]], including ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'', may be transformed by exogenous DNA in the environment. Several methods have been developed to facilitate this transformation at high frequency in the lab.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kawai S, Hashimoto W, Murata K | title = Transformation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other fungi: methods and possible underlying mechanism | journal = Bioengineered Bugs | volume = 1 | issue = 6 | pages = 395–403 | date = 1 November 2010 | pmid = 21468206 | doi = 10.4161/bbug.1.6.13257 | pmc=3056089}}</ref>
* Yeast cells may be treated with enzymes to degrade their cell walls, yielding [[spheroplast]]s. These cells are very fragile but take up foreign DNA at a high rate.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hinnen A, Hicks JB, Fink GR | title = Transformation of yeast | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 75 | issue = 4 | pages = 1929–33 | date = April 1978 | pmid = 347451 | pmc = 392455 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.75.4.1929 | bibcode = 1978PNAS...75.1929H | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* Exposing intact yeast cells to [[alkali]] [[cation]]s such as those of [[caesium]] or [[lithium]] allows the cells to take up plasmid DNA.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ito H, Fukuda Y, Murata K, Kimura A | title = Transformation of intact yeast cells treated with alkali cations | journal = Journal of Bacteriology | volume = 153 | issue = 1 | pages = 163–8 | date = January 1983 | doi = 10.1128/JB.153.1.163-168.1983 | pmid = 6336730 | pmc = 217353 }}</ref> Later protocols adapted this transformation method, using [[lithium acetate]], [[polyethylene glycol]], and single-stranded DNA.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Gietz RD, Woods RA | chapter = Transformation of yeast by lithium acetate/single-stranded carrier DNA/polyethylene glycol method | volume = 350 | pages = 87–96 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12073338 | doi = 10.1016/S0076-6879(02)50957-5 | isbn = 9780121822538 | series = Methods in Enzymology | title = Guide to Yeast Genetics and Molecular and Cell Biology - Part B }}</ref> In these protocols, the single-stranded DNA preferentially binds to the yeast cell wall, preventing plasmid DNA from doing so and leaving it available for transformation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gietz RD, Schiestl RH, Willems AR, Woods RA | title = Studies on the transformation of intact yeast cells by the LiAc/SS-DNA/PEG procedure | journal = Yeast | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 355–60 | date = April 1995 | pmid = 7785336 | doi = 10.1002/yea.320110408 | s2cid = 22611810 }}</ref>
* [[Electroporation]]: Formation of transient holes in the cell membranes using electric shock; this allows DNA to enter as described above for bacteria.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last=Schiestl|first=Robert H.|author2=Manivasakam, P. |author3=Woods, Robin A. |author4= Gietzt, R.Daniel |title=Introducing DNA into Yeast by Transformation|journal=Methods|date=1 August 1993|volume=5|issue=2|pages=79–85|doi=10.1006/meth.1993.1011}}</ref>
* Enzymatic digestion<ref>{{cite journal|last=Spencer|first=F.|author2=Ketner, G. |author3=Connelly, C. |author4= Hieter, P. |title=Targeted Recombination-Based Cloning and Manipulation of Large DNA Segments in Yeast|journal=Methods|date=1 August 1993|volume=5|issue=2|pages=161–175|doi=10.1006/meth.1993.1021}}</ref> or agitation with glass beads<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Costanzo MC, Fox TD | title = Transformation of yeast by agitation with glass beads | journal = Genetics | volume = 120 | issue = 3 | pages = 667–70 | date = November 1988 | doi = 10.1093/genetics/120.3.667 | pmid = 3066683 | pmc = 1203545 }}</ref> may also be used to transform yeast cells.

'''Efficiency''' &ndash; Different yeast genera and species take up foreign DNA with different efficiencies.<ref name="Dohmen1991">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dohmen RJ, Strasser AW, Höner CB, Hollenberg CP | title = An efficient transformation procedure enabling long-term storage of competent cells of various yeast genera | journal = Yeast | volume = 7 | issue = 7 | pages = 691–2 | date = October 1991 | pmid = 1776359 | doi = 10.1002/yea.320070704 | s2cid = 7108750 }}</ref> Also, most transformation protocols have been developed for baker's yeast, ''S. cerevisiae'', and thus may not be optimal for other species. Even within one species, different strains have different transformation efficiencies, sometimes different by three orders of magnitude. For instance, when S. cerevisiae strains were transformed with 10&nbsp;ug of plasmid YEp13, the strain DKD-5D-H yielded between 550 and 3115 colonies while strain OS1 yielded fewer than five colonies.<ref name="Hayama2002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hayama Y, Fukuda Y, Kawai S, Hashimoto W, Murata K | title = Extremely simple, rapid and highly efficient transformation method for the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae using glutathione and early log phase cells | journal = Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering | volume = 94 | issue = 2 | pages = 166–71 | year = 2002 | pmid = 16233287 | doi=10.1016/s1389-1723(02)80138-4}}</ref>