Editing Hadza language (section)

==Grammar==
A grammar of Hadza is given by Miller (2008).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Miller|2008}}</ref>

Hadza is a [[head-marking]] language in both clauses and noun phrases. [[Constituent order|Word order]] is flexible; the default constituent order is VSO, though VOS and fronting to SVO are both very common. The order of determiner, noun, and attributive also varies, though with morphological consequences. There is number and gender agreement on both attributives (for head nouns) and verbs (for subjects).

Reduplication of the initial syllable of a word, usually with tonic accent and a long vowel, is used to indicate 'just' (meaning either 'merely' or 'solely') and is quite common. It occurs on both nouns and verbs, and reduplication can be used to emphasize other things, such as the habitual suffix ''-he-'' or the pluractional infix ''{{angle bracket|kV}}''.

===Nouns and pronouns===
Nouns have grammatical gender (masculine and feminine) and number (singular and plural). They are marked by suffixes as follows:

{|class=wikitable
|-
! ||sg.||pl
|-
!m
| ||-bii
|-
!f
| -ko||-bee
|}
The feminine plural is used for mixed natural gender, as in ''Hazabee'' 'the Hadza'. For many animals, the grammatical singular is [[transnumeric]], as in English: ''dongoko'' 'zebra' (either one or a group). The masculine plural may trigger vowel harmony: ''dongobee'' 'zebras' (an individuated number), ''dungubii'' 'zebra bucks'. A couple of kin terms and the diminutive suffix ''-nakwe'' take ''-te'' in the m.sg., which is otherwise unmarked.

Gender is used metaphorically, with ordinarily feminine words made masculine if they are notably thin, and ordinarily masculine words made feminine if they are notably round. Gender also distinguishes such things as vines (m) and their tubers (f), or berry trees (f) and their berries (m). Mass nouns tend to be grammatically plural, such as ''atibii'' 'water' (cf. ''ati'' 'rain', ''atiko'' 'a spring').

The names reported for dead animals do not follow this pattern. Calling attention to a dead zebra, for example, uses the form ''hantayii'' (masculine ''hantayee'', plural (rare) ''hantayetee'' and ''hantayitchii''). This is because these forms are not nouns, but imperative verbs; the morphology is clearer in the imperative plural, when addressing more than one person: ''hantatate, hantâte, hantayetate, hantayitchate'' (substitute ''-si'' for final ''-te'' when addressing only men; see below for the verbal object suffixes ''-ta-, -a-, -eta-, -itcha-'').

====The copula====
The ''-pe'' and ''-pi'' forms of nouns often seen in the anthropological literature (actually ''-phee'' and ''-phii'') are [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]]r: ''dongophee'' 'they are zebras'. The copular suffixes distinguish gender in all persons as well as [[clusivity]] in the 1st person. They are:

{|class=wikitable
|-
! ||m.sg.||f.sg.||f.pl.||m.pl
|-
!1.ex
|rowspan=2|-nee ||rowspan=2|-neko ||-'ophee ||-'uphii
|-
!1.in
| -bebee||-bibii
|-
!2
| -tee||-teko||-tetee||-titii
|-
!3
| -a||-ako||-phee||-phii
|}
Forms with high vowels (''i, u'') tend to raise preceding mid vowels to high, just as ''-bii'' does. The 3.sg copula tends to sound like a ''-ya(ko)'' or ''-wa(ko)'' after high and often mid vowels: {{IPA|/oa, ea/}} ≈ {{IPA|[owa, eja]}}, and transcriptions with ''w'' and ''y'' are common in the literature. 

====Pronouns====
Personal and demonstrative pronouns are:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Pronouns
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | singular
! colspan="2" | plural
|-
! {{small|masc}} || {{small|fem}}
! {{small|fem}} || {{small|masc}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st<br>person
! {{small|exclusive}}
| rowspan="2" | ono
| rowspan="2" | onoko
| ôbee
| ûbii
|-
! {{small|inclusive}}
| onebee
| unibii
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| the
| theko
| ethebee
| ithibii
|-
! rowspan="4" | 3rd<br>person
! {{small|proximal}}
| hama
| hako
| habee
| habii
|-
! {{small|given}}
| bami
| bôko
| bee
| bii
|-
! {{small|distal}}
| naha
| nâko
| nâbee
| nâbii
|-
! {{small|invisible}}
| himiggê
| himiggîko
| himiggêbee
| himiggîbii
|}

There are some additional 3rd-person pronouns, including some compound forms. Adverbs are formed from the 3rd-person forms by adding locative ''-na'': ''hamana'' 'here', ''beena'' 'there', ''naná'' 'over there', ''himiggêna'' 'in/behind there'.

===Verbs and adjectives===
An [[infix]] {{angle bracket|kV}}, where V is an [[echo vowel]], occurs after the first syllable of verbs to indicate [[pluractional]]ity.

The copula was covered above. Hadza has several [[auxiliary verb]]s: sequential ''ka-'' and ''iya-'' ~ ''ya-'' 'and then', negative ''akhwa-'' 'not', and [[subjunctive]] ''i-''. Their inflections may be irregular or have different inflectional endings from those of lexical verbs,<ref>''Ya'' and ''ka'' take ''-ˆto, -tikwa, -ˆte, -ˆti'' in the 3rd-person posterior rather than ''-amo, -akwa, -ame, -ami'', for example. In lexical verbs, those endings are used with habitual ''-he-'' to emphasize it.</ref> which are as follows:

{|class=wikitable
|+Hadza [[tense–aspect–mood]] inflections
! ||anterior/<br />non-past||posterior/<br />past||potential<br />conditional||[[veridical]]<br />conditional||imperative/<br />[[hortative]]||purposive<br />(subjunctive)
|-
!1sg
| -ˆta||-naa||-nee||-nikwi|| ||-na
|-
!1.ex
| -'ota||-'aa||-'ee||-'ukwi|| ||-ya
|-
!1.in
| -bita||-baa||-bee||-bikwi||(use 2pl)||-ba
|-
!2sg
| -tita ~ -ita||-taa||-tee||-tikwi||-'V||-ta
|-
!2f.pl
| -(e)têta||-(e)tea||-etee||rowspan=2|-ˆtîkwi||colspan=2|-(ˆ)te
|-
!2m.pl
| -(i)tîta||-(i)tia||-itii||colspan=2|-(ˆ)si
|-
!3m.sg
| -eya||-amo||-heso||-kwiso||-ka||-so
|-
!3f.sg
| -ako||-akwa||-heko||-kwiko||-kota||-ko
|-
!3f.pl
| -ephee||-ame||-hese||-kwise||-keta||-se
|-
!3m.pl
| -iphii||-ami||-hisi||-kwisi||-kitcha||-si
|}

The functions of the anterior and posterior differ between auxiliaries; with lexical verbs, they are non-past and past. The potential and veridical conditionals reflect the degree of certainty that something would have occurred. 1sg.npst ''-ˆta'' and a couple other forms lengthen the preceding vowel. The 1.ex forms apart from ''-ya'' begin with a glottal stop. The imp.sg is a glottal stop followed by an [[echo vowel]].

Habitual forms take ''-he'', which tends to reduce to a long vowel, before these endings. In some verbs, the habitual has become lexicalized (marking the {{sc|3.post}} forms with glottal stop), and so an actual habitual takes a second ''-he''. Various compound tense-aspect-moods occur by doubling up the inflectional endings. There are several additional inflections which have not been worked out.

The inflectional endings are [[clitic]]s and may occur on an adverb before the verb, leaving a bare verb stem (verb root plus object suffixes).

====Attributives====
As is common in the area, there are only a few bare-root adjectives in Hadza, such as ''pakapaa'' 'big'. Most attributive forms take a suffix with cross-gender&nbsp;number marking: ''-e'' (m.sg. and f.pl.) or ''-i'' (f.sg. and m.pl.). These agree with the noun they modify. The ''-i'' form tends to trigger [[vowel harmony]], so that, for example, the adjective ''one-'' 'sweet' has the following forms:

{|class=wikitable
|+''one'' 'sweet'
! ||singular||plural
|-
!masc
| onê (onehe)||unîbii
|-
!fem
| unîko||onêbee
|}
The ''-ko/-bee/-bii'' ending may be replaced by the copula, but the ''e/i'' cross-number&nbsp;gender marking remains.

Demonstratives, adjectives, and other attributives may occur before or after a noun, but nouns only take their gender&nbsp;number endings when they occur first in the noun phrase: ''Ondoshibii unîbii'' 'sweet cordia berries', ''manako unîko'' 'tasty meat', but ''unîbii ondoshi'' and ''unîko mana''. Similarly, ''dongoko bôko'' but ''bôko dongo'' 'those zebra'.

Verbs may also be made attributive: ''dluzîko akwiti'' 'the woman (''akwitiko'') who is speaking', from ''dlozo'' 'to say'. This attributive form is used with the copula to form the [[progressive aspect]]: ''dlozênee'' 'I am speaking' (male speaker), ''dluzîneko'' 'I am speaking' (female speaker).

====Object marking====
Verbs may take up to two object suffixes, for a direct object (DO) and indirect object (IO). These only differ in the {{gcl|1EX}} and {{gcl|3SG}}. The {{gcl|IO}} suffixes are also used on nouns to indicate possession (''mako-kwa'' 'my pot', ''mako-a-kwa'' 'it is my pot').

{|class=wikitable
|+Object/possessive suffixes
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2|{{gcl|SG}}
!colspan=2|{{gcl|PL}}
|-
!{{gcl|DO}} !! {{gcl|IO}}
!{{gcl|DO}} !! {{gcl|IO}}
|-
!{{gcl|1EX}}
|rowspan=2 colspan=2| -kwa || -oba || -ya
|-
!{{gcl|1IN}}
|colspan=2| -ona ~ -yona
|-
!{{gcl|2F}}
|colspan=2| -ena||colspan=2 rowspan=2| -ina
|-
!{{gcl|2F}}
|colspan=2| -na
|-
!{{gcl|3M}}
| -a ~ -ya ~ -na||-ma||colspan=2| -itcha
|-
!{{gcl|3F}}
| -ta||-sa||colspan=2| -eta
|}
Two object suffixes are only allowed if the first (the {{gcl|DO}}) is 3rd person. In such cases the {{gcl|DO}} reduces to the form of the attributive suffix: ''-e'' ({{gcl|M}}.{{gcl|SG}} / {{gcl|F}}.{{gcl|PL}}) or ''-i'' ({{gcl|F}}.{{gcl|PL}} / {{gcl|M}}.{{gcl|SG}}); only context tells which combination of number and gender is intended. 3rd-singular direct objects also reduce to this form in the imperative singular; 3rd-plural change their vowels but do not conflate with the singular: see 'dead zebra' under nouns above for an example of the forms.

===Word order===
The factors governing the word order within noun phrases are not known. Constituent order tends to be SXVO (where X is an auxiliary) for a new or emphasized subject, with the subject moving further back (XSVO, XVSO, and XVOS), or simply not mentioned (XVO) the better it is established. Where context, semantics, and the verbal suffixes fail to disambiguate, ''verb–noun–noun'' is understood to be VSO.