Editing Ho-Chunk language (section)

== Morphology ==

=== Verb structure ===
Ho-Chunk is an [[Agglutinative language|agglutinating]] and somewhat [[Fusional language|fusional]] language.  Verbs contain several [[affix]]es to indicate things like person, number, tense, and mood.

==== Prefix field ====
Ho-Chunk uses prefixes on a verb stem to mark [[Grammatical person|person]], [[locative case]], [[instrumental case]], [[benefactive case]], [[Reflexive case|reflexivity]] (including possessive reflexivity), and [[Reciprocal pronoun|reciprocality]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Lessons from Endangered Languages|last1=Helmbrecht|first1=Johannes|last2=Lehmann|first2=Christian|publisher=Benjamins|year=2008|editor-last=Harrison|editor-first=David|location=Amsterdam|pages=271–317|chapter=Hocank's challenge to morphological theory|editor-last2=Rood|editor-first2=David|editor-last3=Dwyer|editor-first3=Ariane}}</ref>

===== Person prefixes =====
Ho-Chunk verbs are inflected with eight pronominal categories marked for [[Grammatical person|person]] and [[clusivity]].<ref name=":02"/> Ho-Chunk is a [[pro-drop language]]; pronouns are used very infrequently, and information on grammatical person is found on the verb in the form of one or more [[prefix]]es.
# First person singular (abbreviated 1SG)
# Second person singular (abbreviated 2SG)
# Third person singular (abbreviated 3SG)
# First person dual inclusive (abbreviated 1IN.DU)
# First person inclusive plural (abbreviated 1IN.PL)
# First person exclusive plural (abbreviated 1EX.PL)
# Second person plural (abbreviated 2PL)
# Third person plural (abbreviated 3PL)

====== Person marking in transitive verbs ======
Ho-Chunk's [[Transitive verb|transitive]] verbs are inflected with [[Agent (grammar)|agent]] (actor) and [[Patient (grammar)|patient]] (undergoer) [[pronominal]]s. The generic paradigm of the pronominal prefixes in transitive verbs<ref name=":02"/> is outlined below. The letter V stands in the place of the [[verb stem]].:

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="4" colspan="4" |
! colspan="8" | Patient
|-
! colspan="4" | 1st person
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
! colspan="2" | 3rd person
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
! {{small|dual}}
! colspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
! rowspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
! rowspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
! rowspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
! rowspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
|-
! {{gcl|INCL}}
! {{gcl|INCL}}
! {{gcl|EXCL}}
|-
! rowspan="8" {{vert header|va=middle|Actor}}
! rowspan="4" | 1st person
! colspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
| 
| 
| 
| 
| nįį-V
| nįį-V-wi
| ∅-ha-V
| wa-ha-V
|-
! {{small|dual}}
! {{gcl|INCL}}
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| hį-∅-V
| hį-wa-V
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
! {{gcl|INCL}}
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| hį-∅-V-wi
| hį-wa-V-wi
|-
! {{gcl|EXCL}}
| 
| 
| 
| 
| nįį-V-wi
| nįį-V-wi
| ∅-ha-V-wi
| wa-ha-V-wi
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
! colspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
| hį-ra-V
| 
| 
| hį-ra-V-wi
| 
| 
| ∅-ra-V
| wa-ra-V
|-
! colspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
| hį-ra-V-wi
| 
| 
| hį-ra-V-wi
| 
| 
| ∅-ra-V-wi
| wa-ra-V-wi
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! colspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
| hį-∅-V
| wąąga-∅-V
| wąąga-∅-V-wi
| hį-∅-V-wi
| nį-∅-V
| nį-∅-V-wi
| ∅-∅-V
| wa-∅-V
|-
! colspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
| hį-V-ire
| wąąga-V-ire
| wąąga-V-ire-wi
| hį-V-ire-wi
| nį-V-ire
| nį-V-ire-wi
| ∅-V-ire
| wa-V-ire
|}

In this table, the null symbol (∅) is used to represent all third person singular actor and patient pronominals.  It indicates that there is no overt prefix for those pronominals (in other words, that they are [[null morpheme]]s).  Some cells are left blank because there are no pronominal affixes associated with that particular person/number combination.  In cases like these, the action is [[Reflexive verb|reflexive]] (i.e. I do something to myself, or you (plural) do something to yourselves).  Reflexivity in Ho-Chunk is indicated with another prefix, ''kii''-.

The sounds in the prefixes run together in casual speech, often leading to the deletion of the /h/ consonant and thus a long vowel or [[diphthong]].  This is evident in the example ''waakere'' 'I put them (standing)', in which the third person plural patient prefix ''wa''- merges with the first person actor prefix ''ha''-, producing ''waa''-.

====== Person marking in intransitive verbs ======
Ho-Chunk's [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]] verbs fall into three main types: intransitive [[Active verb|active]] verbs, intransitive [[Stative verb|stative]] verbs, and intransitive 'third person-only' verbs.<ref name=":02"/>

Intransitive active verbs are those which involve only human or animate agent(s). An example is ''šgaac'' 'play', which is inflected for person and number as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Person and number marking paradigm 
for intransitive action verb ''šgaac''
!
!
!Ho-Chunk verb
!Translation
|-
! rowspan="8" |Agent
!1SG
|hašgac (ha-šgac)
|'I play'
|-
!2SG
|rašgac (ra-šgac)
|'you play'
|-
!3SG
|šgaac (∅-šgac)
|'he or she plays'
|-
!1IN.DU
|hįšgac (hį-šgac)
|'you and I play'
|-
!1IN.PL
|hįšgacwi (hį-šgac-wi)
|'we (inclusive) play'
|-
!1EX.PL
|hašgacwi (ha-šgac-wi)
|'we (exclusive) play'
|-
!2PL
|rašgacwi (ra-šgac-wi)
|'you (plural) play'
|-
!3PL
|šgaacire (šgaac-ire)
|'they play'
|}
Intransitive stative verbs involve an action affecting a patient.  This is characteristic of the verb ''š'aak'' 'to be old':
{| class="wikitable"
|+Person and number marking paradigm
for intransitive stative verb ''š'aak''
!
!
!Ho-Chunk verb
!Translation
|-
! rowspan="8" |Patient
!1SG
|hįš'ak (hį-š'ak)
|'I am old'
|-
!2SG
|nįš'ak (nį-š'ak)
|'you are old'
|-
!3SG
|š'aak (∅-š'aak)
|'he or she is old'
|-
!1IN.DU
|wąągaš'ak (wąąga-š'ak)
|'you and I are old'
|-
!1IN.PL
|wąągaš'akwi (wąąga-š'ak-wi)
|'we (inclusive) are old'
|-
!1EX.PL
|hįš'akwi (hį-š'ak-wi)
|'we (exclusive) are old'
|-
!2PL
|nįš'akwi (nį-š'ak-wi)
|'you (plural) are old'
|-
!3PL
|š'aakire (š'aak-ire)
|'they are old'
|}
Intransitive third-person-only verbs designate states and properties of mostly inanimate things, such as "(to) be delicious" or "(to) be expensive".  They can only be inflected for third person singular or third person plural subjects (e.g. ''ceexi'' (∅-ceexi) 'it is expensive' or ''ceexire'' (ceexi-ire) 'they are expensive').

===== Locative prefixes =====
Ho-Chunk has two locative prefixes, ''ha-'' 'on' or 'onto', and ''ho-'' 'in' or 'into'. These prefixes were first described by William Lipkind in his 1928 grammar of the language<sup>[11]</sup> . The prefixes are added to a verb stem as seen in the examples below:

{{interlinear|indent=3
|mįįk → '''ha'''mįk
|{to lie (somewhere)} → {to lie on top of}|}}
{{interlinear|indent=3
|mįįk → '''ho'''mįk
|{to lie (somewhere)} → {to lie in}|}}

A locative prefix may derive a noun, a verb, or both.  This is true for ''homįk'', which can refer to a verb 'to lie in' or a noun 'bed'.  More recent learning materials refer to the ''ha-'' prefix as a [[Superessive case|superessive]] [[Applicative voice|applicative]] marker, and the ''ho-'' prefix as an [[Inessive case|inessive]] [[Applicative voice|applicative]] marker.<ref name=":02"/>

===== Instrumental prefixes =====
Ho-Chunk has a set of instrumental prefixes which indicate that an action is accomplished by means of some instrument, force, or special type of instrumental movement.  These prefixes are translated into English with such phrases as 'by foot', 'by hand', or 'by striking'. Some sources list eight instrumental prefixes in Ho-Chunk,<ref name=":02"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://content.wisconsinhistory.org/cdm/ref/collection/tp/id/28275|title=Winnebago Grammar :: Turning Points in Wisconsin History|website=content.wisconsinhistory.org|access-date=2016-04-29}}</ref> while others recognize a ninth ''nąą''- 'by internal force' (phonologically identical to ''nąą''- 'by foot').<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hoocąk Hit'ekjawi!|last1=Garvin|first1=Cecil|last2=Hartmann|first2=Iren|publisher=Ho-Chunk Nation|year=2006|location=Mauston, WI}}</ref><ref>Hartmann, Iren (2012). Valency classes in Hoocąk (Siouan). Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzing, Germany</ref> These prefixes are listed first with their English translation, then paired with a stem ''wax'' 'to break, cut or sever a string-like object':
{| class="wikitable"
|+Instrumental prefixes
!
!Instrumental prefix
!English translation
|-
! rowspan="4" |Inner
|''gi-''
|'by striking'
|-
|''ra-''
|'with the mouth, with the teeth'
|-
|''ru-''
|'by hand'
|-
|''wa-''
|'by pressure, by pushing'
|-
! rowspan="5" |Outer
|''boo-''
|'by shooting, by blowing, by force'
|-
|''mąą-''
|'by cutting'
|-
|''nąą(1)-''
|'by foot'
|-
|''nąą(2)-''
|'by internal force'
|-
|''taa-''
|'by extreme temperature'
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Instrumental prefixes paired with stem ''wax''
!Ho-Chunk verb
!English translation
|-
|''giwax''
|'break string in two by striking'
|-
|''rawax''
|'bite string in two'
|-
|''ruwax''
|'break string in two by pulling'
|-
|''wawax''
|'break string by downward pressure'
|-
|''boowax''
|'shoot string in two'
|-
|''mąąwax''
|'cut string in two'
|-
|''nąąwax''
|'break string in two by foot'
|-
|''nąąwax''
|'string breaks of own accord'
|-
|''taawax''
|'string is burned in two'
|}
The instrumental prefixes are identified as 'Inner' or 'Outer' due to their position relative to other prefixes attaching to the verb stem.  Inner prefixes are closer to the verb stem, while outer prefixes are farther away on the left edge of the word.  Instrumental prefixes are found in all Siouan languages,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://csd.clld.org/|title=Comparative Siouan Dictionary -|website=csd.clld.org|access-date=2016-04-29}}</ref> and it is theorized that outer instrumentals originated as nouns or [[Nominalization|nominalized]] stems.<ref>Rankin, Robert L. 2008. Instrumental prefixes in the Siouan Languages. Paper presented at the 3rd Workshop on Comparative Siouan Syntax in conjunction with the 28th Siouan and Caddoan Languages Conference. Missouri Southern State University, Joplin MO.</ref>

==== Suffix field ====
Ho-Chunk's suffixes mark [[Grammatical number|number]], [[Grammatical tense|tense]], [[Grammatical mood|mood]], [[Negation (linguistics)|negation]], and [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]].