Editing Impression management (section)

== Application ==

=== Face-to-face communication ===

==== Self, social identity and social interaction ====
The social psychologist, Edward E. Jones, brought the study of impression management to the field of psychology during the 1960s and extended it to include people's attempts to control others' impression of their personal characteristics.<ref>Leary; Kowalski 1990</ref> His work sparked an increased attention towards impression management as a fundamental interpersonal process.

The concept of [[self]] is important to the theory of impression management as the images people have of themselves shape and are shaped by social interactions.{{sfn|Schlenker|1980|p=47}} Our self-concept develops from social experience early in life.{{sfn|Schlenker|1980|p=85}} Schlenker (1980) further suggests that children anticipate the effect that their behaviours will have on others and how others will evaluate them. They control the impressions they might form on others, and in doing so they control the outcomes they obtain from social interactions.

[[Social identity]] refers to how people are defined and regarded in [[social interactions]].{{sfn|Schlenker|1980|p=69}} Individuals use impression management strategies to influence the social identity they project to others.{{sfn|Schlenker|1980|p=85}} The identity that people establish influences their behaviour in front of others, others' treatment of them and the outcomes they receive. Therefore, in their attempts to influence the impressions others form of themselves, a person plays an important role in affecting his social outcomes.{{sfn|Schlenker|1980|p=90}}

Social interaction is the process by which we act and react to those around us. In a nutshell, social interaction includes those acts people perform toward each other and the responses they give in return.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://study.com/academy/lesson/social-interactions-definition-types-quiz.html|title=Social Interactions: Definition & Types|last=Moffitt|first=Kimberly}}</ref> The most basic function of self-presentation is to define the nature of a social situation (Goffman, 1959). Most social interactions are very role governed. Each person has a role to play, and the interaction proceeds smoothly when these roles are enacted effectively. People also strive to create impressions of themselves in the minds of others in order to gain material and social rewards (or avoid material and social [[Social rejection|punishments]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/jdb/452/452_chapter_07.pdf|title=CHAPTER 07 SELF-PRESENTATION|last=Brown|first=Jonathon}}</ref>

==== Cross-cultural communication   ====
Understanding how one's impression management behavior might be interpreted by others can also serve as the basis for smoother interactions and as a means for solving some of the most insidious communication problems among individuals of different racial/ethnic and gender backgrounds (Sanaria, 2016).<ref name="Sanaria"/><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Rosenfeld|first1=Paul|last2=Giacalone|first2=Robert A.|last3=Riordan|first3=Catherine A.|date=1994-03-01|title=Impression Management Theory and Diversity Lessons for Organizational Behavior|journal=American Behavioral Scientist|language=en|volume=37|issue=5|pages=601–604|doi=10.1177/0002764294037005002|s2cid=145797383|issn=0002-7642|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1235530}}</ref>

"People are sensitive to how they are seen by others and use many forms of impression management to compel others to react to them in the ways they wish" (Giddens, 2005, p.&nbsp;142). An example of this concept is easily illustrated through cultural differences. Different cultures have diverse thoughts and opinions on what is considered [[Physical attractiveness|beautiful or attractive]]. For example, Americans tend to find [[Olive skin|tan skin]] attractive, but in Indonesian culture, [[Light skin|pale skin]] is more desirable.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/553/impression-management-considering-cultural-social-and-spiritual-factors|title=Impression Management: Considering Cultural, Social, and Spiritual Factors|journal=Inquiries Journal|volume=3|issue=7|last=Norris|first=Ashley|date=2011}}</ref> It is also argued that Women in India use different impression management strategies as compared to women in western cultures (Sanaria, 2016).<ref name="Sanaria"/>

Another illustration of how people attempt to control how others perceive them is portrayed through the clothing they wear. A person who is in a leadership position strives to be respected and in order to control and maintain the impression. This illustration can also be adapted for a cultural scenario. The clothing people choose to wear says a great deal about the person and the culture they represent. For example, most Americans are not overly concerned with conservative clothing. Most Americans are content with tee shirts, shorts, and showing skin. The exact opposite is true on the other side of the world. "Indonesians are both modest and conservative in their attire" (Cole, 1997, p.&nbsp;77).<ref name=":3" />

One way people shape their identity is through sharing photos on social media platforms. The ability to modify photos by certain technologies, such as Photoshop, helps achieve their idealized images.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dijck |first1=van |title=Digital photography: communication, identity, memory |date=2008}}</ref>

Companies use [[cross-cultural training]] (CCT) to facilitate effective cross-cultural interaction. CCT can be defined as any procedure used to increase an individual's ability to cope with and work in a foreign environment. Training employees in culturally consistent and specific impression management (IM) techniques provide the avenue for the employee to consciously switch from an automatic, home culture IM mode to an IM mode that is culturally appropriate and acceptable. Second, training in IM reduces the uncertainty of interaction with FNs and increases employee's ability to cope by reducing unexpected events.<ref name=":5" />

==== Team-working in hospital wards   ====
Impression management theory can also be used in health communication. It can be used to explore how professionals 'present' themselves when interacting on hospital wards and also how they employ front stage and backstage settings in their collaborative work.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Lewin|first1=Simon|last2=Reeves|first2=Scott|date=2011-05-01|title=Enacting 'team' and 'teamwork': using Goffman's theory of impression management to illuminate interprofessional practice on hospital wards|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=72|issue=10|pages=1595–1602|doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.03.037|issn=1873-5347|pmid=21549467}}</ref>

In the hospital wards, Goffman's front stage and backstage performances are divided into 'planned' and 'ad hoc' rather than 'official' and 'unofficial' interactions.<ref name=":4" />

* ''Planned front stage'' is the structured collaborative activities such as ward rounds and care conferences which took place in the presence of patients and/or carers.
* ''Ad hoc front stage'' is the unstructured or unplanned interprofessional interactions that took place in front of patients/carers or directly involved patients/carers.
* ''Planned backstage'' is the structured multidisciplinary team meeting (MDT) in which professionals gathered in a private area of the ward, in the absence of patients, to discuss management plans for patients under their care.
* ''Ad hoc backstage'' is the use of corridors and other ward spaces for quick conversations between professionals in the absence of patients/carers.
* Offstage is the social activities between and among professional groups/individuals outside of the hospital context.<ref name=":4" />

Results show that interprofessional interactions in this setting are often based less on planned front stage activities than on ad hoc backstage activities. While the former may, at times, help create and maintain an appearance of collaborative interprofessional 'teamwork', conveying a sense of professional togetherness in front of patients and their families, they often serve little functional practice. These findings have implications for designing ways to improve interprofessional practice on acute hospital wards where there is no clearly defined interprofessional team, but rather a loose configuration of professionals working together in a collaborative manner around a particular patient. In such settings, interventions that aim to improve both ad hoc as well as planned forms of communication may be more successful than those intended to only improve planned communication.<ref name=":4" />

=== Computer-mediated communication ===
The [[hyperpersonal model]] of [[computer-mediated communication]] (CMC) posits that users exploit the technological aspects of CMC in order to enhance the messages they construct to manage impressions and facilitate desired relationships. The most interesting aspect of the advent of CMC is how it reveals basic elements of interpersonal communication, bringing into focus fundamental processes that occur as people meet and develop relationships relying on typed messages as the primary mechanism of expression. "Physical features such as one's appearance and voice provide much of the information on which people base first impressions face-to-face, but such features are often unavailable in CMC. Various perspectives on CMC have suggested that the lack of nonverbal cues diminishes CMC's ability to foster impression formation and management, or argued impressions develop nevertheless, relying on language and content cues. One approach that describes the way that CMC's technical capacities work in concert with users' impression development intentions is the hyperpersonal model of CMC (Walther, 1996). As receivers, CMC users idealize partners based on the circumstances or message elements that suggest minimal similarity or desirability. As senders, CMC users selectively self-present, revealing attitudes and aspects of the self in a controlled and socially desirable fashion. The CMC channel facilitates editing, discretion, and convenience, and the ability to tune out environmental distractions and re-allocate cognitive resources in order to further enhance one's message composition. Finally, CMC may create dynamic feedback loops wherein the exaggerated expectancies are confirmed and reciprocated through mutual interaction via the bias-prone communication processes identified above."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Walther|first=Joseph B.|date=2007-09-01|title=Selective self-presentation in computer-mediated communication: Hyperpersonal dimensions of technology, language, and cognition|url=http://isiarticles.com/bundles/Article/pre/pdf/38956.pdf|journal=Computers in Human Behavior|volume=23|issue=5|pages=2538–2557|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2006.05.002|s2cid=14663755 }}</ref>

According to O'Sullivan's (2000) impression management model of communication channels, individuals will prefer to use mediated channels rather than face-to-face conversation in face-threatening situations. Within his model, this trend is due to the channel features that allow for control over exchanged social information. The present paper extends O'Sullivan's model by explicating information control as a media affordance, arising from channel features and social skills, that enables an individual to regulate and restrict the flow of social information in an interaction, and present a scale to measure it. One dimension of the information control scale, expressive information control, positively predicted channel preference for recalled face-threatening situations. This effect remained after controlling for social anxiousness and power relations in relationships. O'Sullivan's model argues that some communication channels may help individuals manage this struggle and therefore be more preferred as those situations arise. It was based on an assumption that channels with features that allow fewer social cues, such as reduced nonverbal information or slower exchange of messages, invariably afford an individual with an ability to better manage the flow of a complex, ambiguous, or potentially difficult conversations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Feaster|first=John Christian|date=2010-10-01|title=Expanding the Impression Management Model of Communication Channels: An Information Control Scale|journal=Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=115–138|doi=10.1111/j.1083-6101.2010.01535.x|issn=1083-6101|doi-access=free}}</ref> Individuals manage what information about them is known, or isn't known, to control other's impression of them. Anyone who has given the bathroom a quick cleaning when they anticipate the arrival of their mother-in-law (or date) has managed their impression. For an example from [[Information and communications technology|information and communication technology]] use, inviting someone to view a person's Webpage before a face-to-face meeting may predispose them to view the person a certain way when they actually meet.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C6eTAgAAQBAJ|title=Information and Communication Technologies in Action: Linking Theories and Narratives of Practice|last1=Browning|first1=Larry D.|last2=Saetre|first2=Alf Steinar|last3=Stephens|first3=Keri|last4=Sornes|first4=Jan-Oddvar|date=2010-09-28|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135889432|language=en}}</ref>

==== Corporate brand ====
The impression management perspective offers potential insight into how corporate stories could build the corporate brand, by influencing the impressions that stakeholders form of the organization. The link between themes and elements of corporate stories and IM strategies/behaviours indicates that these elements will influence audiences' perceptions of the corporate brand.<ref name="Sara Spear 491–501">{{Cite journal|last1=Sara Spear|last2=Stuart Roper|date=2013-11-01|title=Using corporate stories to build the corporate brand: an impression management perspective|journal=Journal of Product & Brand Management|volume=22|issue=7|pages=491–501|doi=10.1108/JPBM-09-2013-0387|issn=1061-0421|url=http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/27968/7/JP%26BM%20Paper%20Submitted%20with%20tables.pdf}}</ref>

===== Corporate storytelling =====
Corporate storytelling is suggested to help demonstrate the importance of the corporate brand to internal and external stakeholders, and create a position for the company against competitors, as well as help a firm to bond with its employees (Roper and Fill, 2012). The corporate reputation is defined as a stakeholder's perception of the organization (Brown et al., 2006), and Dowling (2006) suggests that if the story causes stakeholders to perceive the organization as more authentic, distinctive, expert, sincere, powerful, and likeable, then it is likely that this will enhance the overall corporate reputation.

Impression management theory is a relevant perspective to explore the use of corporate stories in building the corporate brand. The corporate branding literature notes that interactions with brand communications enable stakeholders to form an impression of the organization (Abratt and Keyn, 2012), and this indicates that IM theory could also therefore bring insight into the use of corporate stories as a form of communication to build the corporate brand. Exploring the IM strategies/behaviors evident in corporate stories can indicate the potential for corporate stories to influence the impressions that audiences form of the corporate brand.<ref name="Sara Spear 491–501"/>

===== Corporate document =====
Firms use more subtle forms of influencing outsiders' impressions of firm performance and prospects, namely by manipulating the content and presentation of information in corporate documents with the purpose of "distort[ing] readers" perceptions of corporate achievements" [Godfrey et al., 2003, p.&nbsp;96]. In the accounting literature this is referred to as impression management. The opportunity for impression management in corporate reports is increasing. Narrative disclosures have become longer and more sophisticated over the last few years. This growing importance of descriptive sections in corporate documents provides firms with the opportunity to overcome information asymmetries by presenting more detailed information and explanation, thereby increasing their decision-usefulness. However, they also offer an opportunity for presenting financial performance and prospects in the best possible light, thus having the opposite effect. In addition to the increased opportunity for opportunistic discretionary disclosure choices, impression management is also facilitated in that corporate narratives are largely unregulated.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

==== Media ====
The medium of communication influences the actions taken in impression management. [[Self-efficacy]] can differ according to the fact whether the trial to convince somebody is made through face-to-face-interaction or by means of an e-mail.<ref name="Doring" /> Communication via devices like telephone, e-mail or chat is governed by technical restrictions, so that the way people express personal features etc. can be changed. This often shows how far people will go.

The [[affordance]]s of a certain medium also influence the way a user self-presents.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Bartsch|first1=Miriam|title=Technology and Self-Presentation|date=2015-03-13|work=The Wiley Handbook of Psychology, Technology, and Society|pages=339–357|place=Chichester, UK|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|isbn=978-1-118-77195-2|last2=Subrahmanyam|first2=Kaveri|doi=10.1002/9781118771952.ch19}}</ref> Communication via a professional medium such as e-mail would result in professional self-presentation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pratt|first=Laurie A.|title=Impression Management in Organizational E-Mail Communication|url=http://www.public.asu.edu/~corman/scaorgcomm/pratt.htm|journal=Department of Speech Communication}}</ref> The individual would use greetings, correct spelling, grammar and capitalization as well as scholastic language. Personal communication mediums such as text-messaging would result in a casual self-presentation where the user [[Clipping (morphology)|shortens words]], includes [[emoji]]s and [[selfie]]s and uses less academic language.

Another example of impression management theory in play is present in today's world of social media. Users are able to create a profile and share whatever they like with their friends, family, or the world. Users can choose to omit negative life events and highlight positive events if they so please.<ref>{{cite web |last=Tashmin |first=Nushrat |date=2016 |title=Art of Impression Management on Social media |url=http://www.worldscientificnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/WSN-30-2016-89-102.pdf |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date= |website=}}</ref>

===== Profiles on social networking sites =====
Social media usage among American adults grew from 5% in 2005 to 69% in 2018.<ref name=":22">{{cite web|url=https://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/social-media/|title=Social Media Fact Sheet|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-15}}</ref> [[Facebook]] is the most popular social media platform, followed by [[Instagram]], [[LinkedIn]], and [[Twitter]].<ref name=":22" />

Social networking users will employ protective self-presentations for image management. Users will use subtractive and repudiate strategies to maintain a desired image.<ref name="Rui, J 2013">Rui, J. and M. A. Stefanone (2013). Strategic Management of Other-Provided Information Online: Personality and Network Variables. System Sciences (HICSS), 2013 46th Hawaii International Conference on.</ref> Subtractive strategy is used to untag an undesirable photo on Social Networking Sites. In addition to un-tagging their name, some users will request the photo to be removed entirely. Repudiate strategy is used when a friend posts an undesirable comment about the user. In response to an undesired post, users may add another wall post as an innocence defense. Michael Stefanone states that "self-esteem maintenance is an important motivation for strategic self-presentation online."<ref name="Rui, J 2013" /> Outside evaluations of their physical appearance, competence, and approval from others determines how social media users respond to pictures and wall posts. Unsuccessful self-presentation online can lead to rejection and criticism from social groups. Social media users are motivated to actively participate in SNS from a desire to manage their online image.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Krämer|first1=Nicole C.|last2=Winter|first2=Stephan|date=2008-01-01|title=Impression Management 2.0|journal=Journal of Media Psychology|volume=20|issue=3|pages=106–116|doi=10.1027/1864-1105.20.3.106|s2cid=207609173|issn=1864-1105}}</ref>

Online social media presence often varies with respect to users' age, gender, and body weight. While men and women tend to use social media in comparable degrees, both uses and capabilities vary depending on individual preferences as well perceptions of power or dominance.<ref name="Ashlee. 2016">{{Cite book|title=Social media : enduring principles|last=Ashlee.|first=Humphreys|isbn=9780199328437|location=Oxford|oclc=908698924|year = 2016}}</ref> In terms of performance, men tend to display characteristics associated with masculinity as well as more commanding language styles.<ref name="Ashlee. 2016"/> In much the same way, women tend to present feminine self-depictions and engage in more supportive language.<ref name="Ashlee. 2016"/>

With respect to usage across age variances, many children develop digital and social media literacy skills around 7 or 8 and begin to form online social relationships via virtual environments designed for their age group.<ref name="Ashlee. 2016"/> The years between thirteen and fifteen demonstrate high social media usage that begins to become more balanced with offline interactions as teens learn to navigate both their online and in-person identities which may often diverge from one another.<ref name="Ashlee. 2016"/>

Social media platforms often provide a great degree of social capital during the college years and later.<ref name="Ashlee. 2016"/> College students are motivated to use Facebook for impression management, self-expression, entertainment, communication and relationship maintenance.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Park|first1=Namkee|last2=Lee|first2=Seungyoon|date=2014-10-02|title=College Students' Motivations for Facebook Use and Psychological Outcomes|journal=Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media|language=en|volume=58|issue=4|pages=601–620|doi=10.1080/08838151.2014.966355|s2cid=144193189|issn=0883-8151}}</ref> College students sometimes rely on Facebook to build a favorable online identity, which contributes to greater satisfaction with campus life.<ref name=":0" /> In building an online persona, college students sometimes engage in identity manipulation, including altering personality and appearance, to increase their self-esteem and appear more attractive to peers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bergagna|first1=Elisa|last2=Tartaglia |first2=Stefano|date=November 2018|title=Self-Esteem, Social Comparison, and Facebook Use|journal=Europe's Journal of Psychology |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=831–845 |url=https://web-s-ebscohost-com.rlib.pace.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=2d7ea5d3-612b-40bc-a0b9-ba15c024225d%40redis|doi=10.5964/ejop.v14i4.1592|pmid=30555588 |pmc=6266525 |issn=1841-0413}}</ref> Since risky behavior is frequently deemed attractive by peers, college students often use their social media profiles to gain approval by highlighting instances of risky behavior, like alcohol use and unhealthy eating.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Loss|first1=J.|last2=Lindacher|first2=V.|last3=Curbach|first3=J.|date=2014-04-01|title=Do Social Networking Sites Enhance the Attractiveness of Risky Health Behavior? Impression Management in Adolescents' Communication on Facebook and its Ethical Implications|journal=Public Health Ethics|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=5–16|doi=10.1093/phe/pht028|issn=1754-9973}}</ref> Users present risky behavior as signs of achievement, fun, and sociability, participating in a form of impression management aimed at building recognition and acceptance among peers.<ref name=":12" />  During middle adulthood, users tend to display greater levels of confidence and mastery in their social media connections while older adults tend to use social media for educational and supportive purposes.<ref name="Ashlee. 2016"/> These myriad factors influence how users will form and communicate their online personas. In addition to that, TikTok has made an influence on college students and adults to create their own self-image on a social media platform. The positivity of this is that college students and adults are using this to create their own brand for business purposes and for entertainment purposes. This gives them a chance to seek the desires of stardom and build an audience for revenue.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sharabati |first1=Abdel-Aziz Ahmad |last2=Al-Haddad |first2=Shafig |last3=Al-Khasawneh |first3=Mohammad |last4=Nababteh |first4=Natalie |last5=Mohammad |first5=Mai |last6=Abu Ghoush |first6=Qais |date=September 2022 |title=The Impact of TikTok User Satisfaction on Continuous Intention to Use the Application |journal=Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=125 |doi=10.3390/joitmc8030125 |issn=2199-8531|doi-access=free |hdl=10419/274426 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>  Media fatigue is a negative effect that is caused by the conveyance of social media presence. Social anxiety stems from low-self esteem which causes a strain of stress in one's self-identity that is perceived in the media limelight for targeted audiences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al-Shatti |first1=Esraa |last2=Ohana |first2=Marc |last3=Odou |first3=Philippe |last4=Zaitouni |first4=Michel |date=January 2022 |title=Impression Management on Instagram and Unethical Behavior: The Role of Gender and Social Media Fatigue |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=19 |issue=16 |pages=9808 |doi=10.3390/ijerph19169808 |pmid=36011435 |pmc=9408035 |issn=1660-4601|doi-access=free }}</ref>

According to Marwick, social profiles create implications such as "[[context collapse]]" for presenting oneself to the audience. The concept of 'context collapse' suggests that social technologies make it difficult to vary self-presentation based on environment or audience. "Large sites such as Facebook and Twitter group friends, family members, coworkers, and acquaintances together under the umbrella term 'friends'."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Online Identity|last=Marwick|first=Alice E.|publisher=Blackwell|year=2013|pages=355–364|url=http://www.tiara.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Marwick_Online_Identity.pdf}}</ref> In a way, this context collapse is aided by a notion of [[performativity]] as characterized by [[Judith Butler]].

==== Political impression management ====
Impression management is also influential in the political spectrum. "Political impression management" was coined in 1972 by sociologist Peter M. Hall, who defined the term as the art of marking a candidate look electable and capable (Hall, 1972). This is due in part to the importance of "presidential" candidates—appearance, image, and narrative are a key part of a campaign and thus impression management has always been a huge part of winning an election (Katz 2016). Social media has evolved to be part of the political process, thus political impression management is becoming more challenging as the online image of the candidate often now lies in the hands of the voters themselves.

The evolution of social media has increased the way in which political campaigns are targeting voters and how influential impression management is when discussing political issues and campaigns.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Proudfoot|first1=Jeffrey G.|last2=Wilson|first2=David|last3=Valacich|first3=Joseph S.|last4=Byrd|first4=Michael D.|date=2018-01-02|title=Saving face on Facebook: privacy concerns, social benefits, and impression management|journal=Behaviour & Information Technology|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=16–37|doi=10.1080/0144929X.2017.1389988|s2cid=17497065|issn=0144-929X|url=http://aisel.aisnet.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1230&context=icis2014|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Political campaigns continue to use social media as a way to promote their campaigns and share information about who they are to make sure to lead the conversation about their political platform.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Faculty of Arts and Creative Industries, Middlesex University, London|last2=Šimunjak|first2=Maja|last3=Sinčić Ćorić|first3=Dubravka|last4=Brečić|first4=Ružica|last5=Faculty of Economics and Business, Zagreb|date=December 2017|title=Political Impression Management Through Direct and Mediated Communication: The 2014/2015 Croatian Presidential Elections|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=281654|journal=Drustvena Istrazivanja|volume=26|issue=4|doi=10.5559/di.26.4.05|doi-access=free}}</ref> Research has shown that political campaigns must create clear profiles for each candidate in order to convey the right message to potential voters.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Landtsheer|first1=Christ'l De|last2=De Vries|first2=Philippe|last3=Vertessen|first3=Dieter|date=2008-09-15|title=Political Impression Management: How Metaphors, Sound Bites, Appearance Effectiveness, and Personality Traits Can Win Elections|journal=Journal of Political Marketing|language=en|volume=7|issue=3–4|pages=217–238|doi=10.1080/15377850802005083|s2cid=144530955|issn=1537-7857|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== In the workplace ===
In professional settings, impression management is usually primarily focused on appearing competent,<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last1=Pollach|first1=I.|last2=Kerbler|first2=E.|date=2011-10-01|title=Appearing Competent: A Study of Impression Management in U.S. and European CEO Profiles|url=http://job.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/0021943611414687|journal=Journal of Business Communication|language=en|volume=48|issue=4|pages=355–372|doi=10.1177/0021943611414687|s2cid=154399078|issn=0021-9436}}</ref> but also involves constructing and displaying an image of oneself that others find socially desirable and believably authentic.<ref>Sanaria, A. D. (2016). A conceptual framework for understanding the impression management strategies used by women in indian organizations. South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management, 3(1), 25-39. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299373178_A_Conceptual_Framework_for_Understanding_the_Impression_Management_Strategies_Used_by_Women_in_Indian_Organizations</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|date=2019-09-11|title=Leadership Presence at Work: A Practice – Oriented Framework|url=https://articlegateway.com/index.php/JMDC/article/view/2241|journal=Journal of Marketing Development and Competitiveness|language=en|volume=13|issue=3|doi=10.33423/jmdc.v13i3.2241|issn=2155-2843|doi-access=free}}</ref> People manage impressions by their choice of dress, dressing either more or less formally, and this impacts perceptions their coworkers and supervisors form.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karl |first1=Katherine A. |last2=Hall |first2=Leda McIntyre |last3=Peluchette |first3=Joy V. |date=2013 |title=City Employee Perceptions of the Impact of Dress and Appearance: You Are What You Wear |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0091026013495772 |journal=Public Personnel Management |language=en |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=452–470 |doi=10.1177/0091026013495772 |s2cid=154353863 |issn=0091-0260|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The process includes a give and take; the person managing their impression receives feedback as the people around them interact with the self they are presenting and respond, either favorably or negatively.<ref name=":02" /> Research has shown impression management to be impactful in the workplace because the perceptions co-workers form of one another shape their relationships and indirectly influence their ability to function well as teams and achieve goals together.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Peck|first1=Jessica A.|last2=Hogue|first2=Mary|date=February 2018|title=Acting with the best of intentions… or not: A typology and model of impression management in leadership|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1048984317301455|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|language=en|volume=29|issue=1|pages=123–134|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.10.001}}</ref> 

In their research on impression management among leaders, Peck and Hogue define "impression management as conscious or unconscious, authentic or inauthentic, goal-directed behavior individuals engage in to influence the impression others form of them in social interactions."<ref name=":13" /> Using those three dimensions, labelled "automatic" vs. "controlled", "authentic" vs. "inauthentic", and "pro-self" vs. "pro-social", Peck and Hogue formed a typology of eight impression management archetypes.<ref name=":13" /> They suggest that while no one archetype stands out as the sole correct or ideal way to practice impression management as a leader, types rooted in authenticity and pro-social goals, rather than self-focused goals, create the most positive perceptions among followers.<ref name=":13" />

Impression management strategies employed in the workplace also involve deception, and the ability to recognize deceptive acts impacts the supervisor-subordinate relationship as well as coworker relationships.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=John R. |last2=Carlson |first2=Dawn S. |last3=Ferguson |first3=Merideth |date=2011 |title=Deceptive Impression Management: Does Deception Pay in Established Workplace Relationships? |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10551-010-0693-9 |journal=Journal of Business Ethics |language=en |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=497–514 |doi=10.1007/s10551-010-0693-9 |s2cid=143893862 |issn=0167-4544|url-access=subscription }}</ref> When it comes to workplace behaviors, [[ingratiation]] is the major focus of impression management research.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal |last=Long |first=David M. |date=2021-02-01 |title=Tacticality, Authenticity, or Both? The Ethical Paradox of Actor Ingratiation and Target Trust Reactions |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04251-3 |journal=Journal of Business Ethics |language=en |volume=168 |issue=4 |pages=847–860 |doi=10.1007/s10551-019-04251-3 |s2cid=199160989 |issn=1573-0697|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ingratiation behaviors are those that employees engage in to elicit a favorable impression from a supervisor.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last1=Foulk |first1=Trevor A. |last2=Long |first2=David M. |date=2016 |title=Impressed by Impression Management: Newcomer Reactions to Ingratiated Supervisors |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ap10000146 |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=1487–1497|doi=10.1037/apl0000146 |pmid=27504656 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |last1=Bourdage |first1=Joshua S. |last2=Wiltshire |first2=Jocelyn |last3=Lee |first3=Kibeom |date=2015 |title=Personality and workplace impression management: Correlates and implications. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0037942 |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |language=en |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=537–546 |doi=10.1037/a0037942 |pmid=25243995 |issn=1939-1854|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  These behaviors can have a negative or positive impact on coworkers and supervisors, and this impact is dependent on how ingratiating is perceived by the target and those who observe the ingratiating behaviors.<ref name=":03" /><ref name=":14" /> The perception that follows an ingratiation act is dependent on whether the target attributes the behavior to the authentic-self of the person performing the act, or to impression management strategies.<ref name=":25" />  Once the target is aware that ingratiation is resulting from impression management strategies, the target will perceive ethical concerns regarding the performance.<ref name=":25">{{Cite journal |last=Long |first=David M. |date=2021-02-01 |title=Tacticality, Authenticity, or Both? The Ethical Paradox of Actor Ingratiation and Target Trust Reactions |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04251-3 |journal=Journal of Business Ethics |language=en |volume=168 |issue=4 |pages=847–860 |doi=10.1007/s10551-019-04251-3 |s2cid=199160989 |issn=1573-0697|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, if the target attributes the ingratiation performance to the actor's authentic-self, the target will perceive the behavior as positive and not have ethical concerns.<ref name=":25" />

Workplace leaders that are publicly visible, such as CEOs, also perform impression management with regard to [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]] outside their organizations. In a study comparing online profiles of North American and European CEOs, research showed that while education was referenced similarly in both groups, profiles of European CEOs tended to be more professionally focused, while North American CEO profiles often referenced the CEO's public life outside business dealings, including social and political stances and involvement.<ref name=":23" />

Employees also engage in impression management behaviors to conceal or reveal personal stigmas.  How these individuals approach their disclosure of the stigma(s) impacts coworker's perceptions of the individual, as well as the individual's perception of themselves, and thus affects likeability amongst coworkers and supervisors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lynch |first1=John W. |last2=Rodell |first2=Jessica B. |date=2018 |title=Blend In or Stand Out? Interpersonal Outcomes of Managing Concealable Stigmas at Work |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ap10000342 |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=103 |issue=12 |pages=1307–1323|doi=10.1037/apl0000342 |pmid=30070542 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

On a smaller scale, many individuals choose to participate in professional impression management beyond the sphere of their own workplace. This may take place through informal networking (either face-to-face or using [[computer-mediated communication]]) or channels built to connect professionals, such as [[professional association]]s, or job-related social media sites, like [[LinkedIn]]. &nbsp;