Editing Kavad I (section)

== Second reign ==
===Reforms===
[[Image:Asbaran cavalryman bearing a banner of homa.jpg|thumb|200px|Artistic illustration of an Iranian cavalryman bearing a banner of the [[Huma bird]]]]
Kavad's reign is noteworthy for his reforms, which he had been able to make with the nobility and clergy weakened by the Mazdakites. They would not be completed under his reign but were continued by his son, Khosrow I.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|pp=59–60}} The serious blows the Sasanians had suffered at the hands of the Hephthalites in the last quarter of the 5th century was a key reason behind the reforms the two made.{{sfn|Daryaee|Rezakhani|2017|p=209}} Tax reform was implemented, a poll tax was created, and a review of taxable land was undertaken to ensure that taxation was fair.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} The empire was divided into four frontier regions (''kust'' in Middle Persian), with a [[spahbed|''spāhbed'']] (military commander) in charge of each district; a chancery was also added to keep the soldiers equipped.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}}{{sfn|Miri|2012|p=24}}

Before Kavad and Khosrow's reforms, the Iranians' general (''Eran-spahbed'') managed the empire's army.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=124}} Many of these military commanders were notably from the ''[[wuzurgan]]'' class of [[Parthia]], indicating the continuation of their authority despite the efforts by Kavad and Khosrow.{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=307}} A new priestly office was also created known as the "advocate and judge of the poor" (''driyōšān jādag-gōw ud dādwar''), which assisted the clergy to help the poor and underprivileged, which they had possibly ignored previously.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|pp=129–130}}{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}}

As a result of the reforms, the power of the [[dehqan|''dehqans'']], a class of small land-owning magnates, increased substantially. The ''dehqans'' may have even been created by the reforms in the first place.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} A group of these ''dehqans'' was enlisted into a group of cavalry men, who were managed directly by the shah and earned steady wages.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} This was done to decrease the reliance on the Parthian cavalry.{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=306}} Soldiers were also enlisted from Sasanian allies, such as the Hephthalites, [[Arabs]], and [[Daylamites]].{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=306}} As a result, the newly rejuvenated Sasanian army proved successful in its efforts in subsequent decades. It sacked the Byzantine city of [[Antioch]] in 540, [[Aksumite–Persian wars|conquered Yemen]] in the 570s, and under the Parthian military commander [[Bahram Chobin]] defeated the Hephthalites and their allies, the [[Western Turkic Khaganate]], in the [[Perso-Turkic war of 588–589]].{{sfn|McDonough|2011|p=307}}

Although the reforms were beneficial for the Empire, they may also have resulted in the decline of the traditional links between the aristocracy and the crown under [[Hormizd IV]] ({{reign|579|590}}) and [[Khosrow II]] ({{reign|590|628|show=none}}), to the degree that many belonging to the ''wuzurgan'' class, notably Bahram Chobin of the Mihran family, and later [[Shahrbaraz]] of the same family, were bold enough to dispute the legitimacy of the Sasanian family and lay claims to the throne.{{sfn|Shayegan|2017|p=811}}

===Persecution of Mazdak and his followers===
With his reforms under way by the 520s, Kavad no longer had any use for Mazdak{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} and he officially stopped supporting the Mazdakites.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} A debate was arranged where not only the Zoroastrian priesthood but also Christian and Jewish leaders slandered Mazdak and his followers.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} According to the ''[[Shahnameh]]'', written several centuries later by the medieval Persian poet [[Ferdowsi]], Kavad had Mazdak and his supporters sent to Khosrow. His supporters were killed in a walled orchard, buried head first with only their feet visible.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} Khosrow then summoned Mazdak to look at his garden, saying: "You will find trees there that no-one has ever seen and no-one ever heard of even from the mouth of the ancient sages."{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} Mazdak, seeing his followers' corpses, screamed and passed out. He was executed afterwards by Khosrow, who had his feet fastened on a [[gallows]] and had his men shoot arrows at Mazdak.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=60}} The validity of the story is uncertain; Ferdowsi used much earlier reports of events to write the ''Shahnameh'', and thus the story may report some form of contemporary memory.{{sfn|Axworthy|2008|p=61}}

=== Building projects ===
[[Image:Derbent wall.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph showing the wall at the Fortifications of Derbent with city buildings in the background | The [[Fortifications of Derbent|walls]] of [[Derbent]]]]
Many places were founded or re-built under Kavad. He is said to have founded the city [[Eran-asan-kerd-Kawad]] in [[Media (region)|Media]];{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} [[Fahraj, Yazd|Fahraj]] in [[Spahan (province)|Spahan]];{{sfn|Langarudi|2002}} and Weh-Kawad, Eran-win(n)ard-Kawad, Kawad-khwarrah, and [[Arrajan]] in [[Pars (Sasanian province)|Pars]].{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}{{sfn|Gaube|1986|pp=519-520}} He rebuilt [[Kermanshah|Kirmanshah]] in Media, which he also used as one of his residences.{{sfn|Calmard|1988|pp=319-324}} He is also said to have founded a township in [[Meybod]], which was named Haft-adhar ("seven fires"), because of a Zoroastrian [[fire temple]] being established there. Its original fire was created by fire brought from seven other temples in Pars, Balkh, [[Adurbadagan]], [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nisa]], [[Spahan]], [[Ghazni]], and Ctesiphon.{{sfn|Modarres}}

In the [[Caucasus]], Kavad had new [[Fortifications of Derbent|fortifications]] built at [[Derbent]],{{sfn|Kettenhofen|1994|pp=13–19}} and ordered the construction of the [[Sasanian defense lines#Apzut Kawat and Beshbarmak|Apzut Kawat wall]] ([[Middle Persian]]: ''*Abzūd Kawād'', "Kavad increased [in glory]" or "has prospered").{{sfn|Gadjiev|2017a}} The prominent [[Caucasian Albania]]n capital of [[Barda, Azerbaijan|Partaw]], which had been rebuilt during the reign of Peroz I and named Perozabad ("the city of Peroz"), was fortified by Kavad and called Perozkavad ("victorious Kavad").{{sfn|Chaumont|1985|pp=806-810}} The former Albanian capital of [[Qabala|Kabala]], a large urban area that included the headquarters of one of the Albanian bishops, was also fortified by Kavad.{{sfn|Gadjiev|2017b|pp=124-125}} He founded the city of [[Beylagan (city)|Baylakan]], which by most researchers is identified with the ruins of Oren-kala.{{sfn|Gadjiev|2017b|pp=125}} Ultimately, these extensive buildings and fortifications transformed Caucasian Albania into a bastion of Iranian presence in the Caucasus.{{sfn|Gadjiev|2017b|pp=128-129}}

=== The India trade ===
The Sasanians exerted considerable influence on trade in the region under Kavad.{{sfn|Sauer|2017|p=294}} By using the strategic location of the [[Persian Gulf]], the Sasanians interfered to prevent Byzantine traders from taking take part in the India trade. They accomplished this either by bargaining with trade associates in the [[Indian subcontinent]]—ranging from the [[Gupta Empire]] in the north to the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]] monarchs of [[Sri Lanka]] in the south—or by attacking the Byzantine boats.{{sfn|Sauer|2017|p=294}} Iranian traders were also able to seize Indian vessels well before they could make contact with Byzantine traders.{{sfn|Sauer|2017|p=294}} These advantages resulted in the Iranian traders establishing something resembling a monopoly over the India trade.{{sfn|Sauer|2017|p=295}}

===Anastasian war===
{{main|Anastasian War}}
[[Image:Roman-Persian Frontier in Late Antiquity.svg|thumb|280px|alt=Map showing the Byzantine-Iranian frontier during the reign of Kavad I|Map of the Byzantine-Iranian frontier during the reign of Kavad I]]
The Sasanians and Byzantines had kept peace since the brief [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440]]. The last major war between the two empires had been during the reign of [[Shapur II]] ({{reign|309|379}}).{{sfn|Daryaee|2009}} However, war finally erupted in 502. Bankrupted by his hiatus in 496–498/9, Kavad applied for subsidies to the [[Byzantine Empire]], who originally had paid the Iranians voluntarily to maintain the defense of the Caucasus against attacks from the north.{{sfn|Daryaee|Nicholson|2018}} The Iranians seemingly saw the money as a debt due to them.{{sfn|Daryaee|Nicholson|2018}} But now Emperor [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] ({{reign|491|518|show=none}}) refused subsidies forcing Kavad to attempt to obtain the money by force.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=62}} In 502, Kavad invaded [[Byzantine Armenia]] with a force that included Hephthalite soldiers.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2005}} He [[Siege of Theodosiopolis|captured]] [[Theodosiopolis (Armenia)|Theodosiopolis]], perhaps with local support; in any case, the city was undefended by troops and weakly fortified.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=62}}

He then marched through southwestern Armenia, reportedly without facing any resistance, and entrusted local governor with the administration of the area.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2013|p=872}} He proceeded to cross the Armenian [[Taurus Mountains|Taurus]], and reached [[Silvan, Diyarbakır|Martyropolis]], where its governor Theodore, surrendered without any resistance and gave Kavad two years' worth of taxes collected from the province of [[Sophene]].{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2013|pp=872–873}}{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=63}} Because of this, Kavad let Theodore keep his position as governor of the city.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=63}} Kavad then [[Siege of Amida (502–503)|besieged]] the fortress-city of [[Amida (Mesopotamia)|Amida]] through the autumn and winter (502–503). The siege proved to be a far more difficult enterprise than Kavad had expected; the defenders, although unsupported by troops, repelled the Iranian assaults for three months before they were finally defeated.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=63}}

He had its inhabitants deported to a city in southern Iran, which he named "Kavad's Better Amida" ([[Arrajan|Weh-az-Amid-Kawad]]). He left a garrison in Amida which included his general Glon, two ''[[marzban]]s'' ([[margrave]]s) and 3,000 soldiers.{{sfn|Bonner|2020|p=156 (see also note 184)}} The Byzantines failed in their attempt to recapture the city. Kavad then tried unsuccessfully to capture [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] in [[Osroene]].{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=69–71}} In 505 an invasion of Armenia by the Huns from the Caucasus led to an armistice; the Byzantines paid subsidies to the Iranians for the maintenance of the fortifications on the Caucasus,{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=77}} in return for Amida.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} The peace treaty was signed by the [[House of Ispahbudhan|Ispahbudhan]] aristocrat [[Bawi]], Kavad's brother-in-law.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=111}} Although Kavad's first war with the Byzantines did not end with a decisive winner, the conquest of Amida was the greatest accomplishment achieved by a Sasanian force since 359, when the same city had been [[Siege of Amida (359)|captured]] by Shapur II.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

===Relations with Christianity===
{{main|Church of the East}}
[[Image:Diyarbakr Western City Wall.JPG|thumb|alt=Photograph showing walkways in front of the walls of Amida with buildings in the background | The walls of [[Amida (Mesopotamia)|Amida]]]]
Kavad's relationship with his Christian subjects is unclear. In Christian Iberia, where the Sasanians had earlier tried to spread Zoroastrianism, Kavad represented himself as an advocate of orthodox Zoroastrianism. In Armenia, however, he settled disputes with the Christians and appears to have continued Balash's peaceful approach. The Christians of Mesopotamia and Iran proper practised their religion without any persecution, despite the punishment of Christians in Iran proper being briefly mentioned {{circa|512/3}}. Like Jamasp, Kavad also supported the [[patriarch of the Church of the East]], [[Babai of Seleucia-Ctesiphon|Babai]], and Christians served in high offices at the Sasanian court.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} According to Eberhard Sauer, Sasanian monarchs only persecuted other religions when it was in their urgent political interests to do so.{{sfn|Sauer|2017|p=190}}

According to the ''[[Chronicle of Seert]]'' and the historian [[Mari ibn Suleiman|Mari ibn Sulayman]], Kavad ordered all the religious communities in the empire to submit written descriptions of their beliefs. This took place sometime before 496. In response to this command, the Patriarch [[Acacius of Seleucia-Ctesiphon|Aqaq]] commissioned [[Elishaʿ bar Quzbaye]], interpreter of the [[school of Nisibis]], to write for the Church of the East. His work was then translated from [[Syriac language|Syriac]] to Middle Persian and presented to Kavad. This work has since been [[Lost literary work|lost]].{{sfn|Võõbus|1965|pp=126–127}}

Kavad's reign marked a new turn in Sasanian–Christian relations; before his reign, [[Jesus]] had been seen solely as the defender of the Byzantines.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} This changed under Kavad. According to an apocryphal account in the ''Chronicle of [[Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor|Pseudo–Zachariah of Mytilene]]'', written by an anonymous [[West Syriac rite|West Syrian]] monk at Amida in 569, Kavad saw a vision of Jesus whilst besieging Amida, which encouraged him to remain resolute in his effort.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} Jesus guaranteed to give him Amida within three days, which happened.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} Kavad's forces then sacked the city, taking much booty.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} The city's church was spared, however, due to the relationship between Kavad and Jesus.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} Kavad was even thought to have venerated a figure of Jesus.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}} According to modern historian Richard Payne, the Sasanians could now be viewed as adherents of Jesus and his saints, if not Christianity itself.{{sfn|Payne|2015a|p=171}}

=== Wars in the east ===
Not much is known about Kavad's wars in the east. According to Procopius, Kavad was forced to leave for the eastern frontier in 503 to deal with an attack by "hostile Huns", one of the many clashes in a reportedly lengthy war. After the Sasanian disaster in 484, all of Khorasan was seized by the Hephthalites; no Sasanian coins minted in the area (Nishapur, Herat, Marw) have been found from his first reign.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} The increase in the number of coins minted at [[Hyrcania|Gorgan]] (which was now the northernmost Sasanian region) during his first reign may indicate a yearly tribute he paid to the Hephthalites.{{sfn|Potts|2018|pp=296–297}} During his second reign, his fortunes changed. A Sasanian campaign in 508 led to the conquest of the Zundaber (Zumdaber) Castellum, associated with the temple of az-Zunin in the area of ad-Dawar, situated between [[Lashkargah|Bust]] and [[Kandahar]].{{sfn|Potts|2018|p=297}} A Sasanian coin dating to 512/3 has been found in Marw. This indicates the Sasanians under Kavad had managed to re-conquer Khorasan after successfully dealing with the Hephthalites.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

===Negotiations with the Byzantines over the adoption of Khosrow===
[[Image:Solidus Justin I.jpg|thumb|alt=Obverse and reverse sides of a coin of Byzantine emperor Justin I |[[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]] of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Justin I]]]]
Around 520 to secure the succession of his youngest son Khosrow, whose position was threatened by rival brothers and the Mazdakite sect, and to improve his relationship with the Byzantine emperor [[Justin I]], Kavad proposed that he adopt Khosrow.<ref>{{harvnb|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}; {{harvnb|Kia|2016|p=254}}</ref> This proposal was greeted initially with enthusiasm by the Byzantine emperor and his nephew, [[Justinian]]. However, Justinian's ''[[quaestor sacri palatii|quaestor]]'', Proclus, opposed the move concerned over the possibility that Khosrow might attempt to take over the Byzantine throne.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} The Byzantines made a counter-proposal to adopt Khosrow not as a Roman but as a barbarian.<ref name="PRO11">Procopius, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16764/16764-h/16764-h.htm XI].</ref> In the end the negotiations did not reach a consensus. Khosrow reportedly felt insulted by the Byzantines, and his attitude towards them deteriorated.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

Mahbod and Siyawush were the Sasanian diplomats sent to negotiate with the Byzantines. Mahbod accused Siyawush of purposely sabotaging the negotiations.<ref name="PRO11"/> Further accusations were made against Siyawush, which included his reverence for new deities, and having his dead wife buried, a violation of Iranian law. Siyawush was thus most likely a Mazdakite, the religious sect that Kavad had originally, but now no longer, supported. Although Siyawush was a close friend of Kavad and had helped him escape imprisonment, Kavad did not try to prevent his execution. Seemingly, his purpose was to restrict Siyawush's immense authority as the head of the Sasanian army, a post which was disliked by the other nobles.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} Siyawush was executed, and his office was abolished.{{sfn|Sundermann|1986|p=662}} Despite the breakdown of the negotiations, it was not until 530 that full-scale warfare on the main western frontier broke out. In the intervening years, the two sides preferred waging war by proxy, through Arab allies in the south and Huns in the north.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=81–82}}

===Iberian war===
{{main|Iberian War}}
[[File:DaraFortifications.JPG|thumb|alt=Photograph of ruined fortifications at Dara | Ruins of the fortifications at [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]]]]
Hostility between the two powers erupted into conflict once again in 528, just a year after the new Byzantine emperor [[Justinian I]] ({{reign|527|565}}) had been crowned. This was supposedly the result of the Byzantines not acknowledging Khosrow as Kavad's heir. According to the Greek chronicler [[John Malalas]], military clashes first took place in [[Lazica]], which had been disputed between the two empires since 522. Not long after this the battles also spread down to Mesopotamia, where the Byzantines suffered a heavy defeat near the border. In 530, one of the [[Battle of Dara|famous open-field battles]] took place between the Byzantine and Sasanian troops at [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]].{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}

The Sasanian army led by [[Perozes]], Pityaxes and [[Baresmanas]] suffered a severe defeat. The battle did not, however, bring an end to the conflict.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} The following year Kavad raised an army, which he sent under [[Azarethes]] to invade the Byzantine province of [[Commagene]].{{sfn|Martindale|1992|p=160}} When the Byzantine army under [[Belisarius]] approached, Azarethes and his men withdrew east, halting at [[Raqqa|Callinicum]].{{sfn|Martindale|1992|p=160}} In the [[Battle of Callinicum|ensuing battle]] the Byzantines suffered a heavy defeat, but Iranian losses were so great Kavad was displeased with Azarethes, and relieved him of his command.{{sfn|Martindale|1992|p=160}}<ref name="PROXVIII">Procopius, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16764/16764-h/16764-h.htm Book I.xviii].</ref> In 531, the Iranians [[Siege of Martyropolis (531)|besieged Martyropolis]]. During the siege, however, Kavad became ill and died on 13 September.<ref>Procopius [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/16764/16764-h/16764-h.htm Book I.xxi].</ref>{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}} As a result, the siege was lifted and [[Perpetual Peace (532)|peace was made]] between Kavad's successor Khosrow I and Justinian.{{sfn|Schindel|2013a|pp=136–141}}