Editing Lydian language (section)

==Morphology==

===Nouns===
Nouns and adjectives distinguish [[grammatical number|singular and plural]] forms. Words in the texts are predominantly singular. Plural forms are scarce, and a [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] has not been found in Lydian. There are two [[grammatical gender|genders]]: animate (or 'common') and inanimate (or 'neuter'). Only three cases are securely attested: [[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], and [[dative case|dative]]-[[locative case|locative]]. A [[genitive case]] seems to be present in the plural, but in the singular usually a so-called [[possessive]] is used instead, which is similar to the [[Luwic languages]]: a suffix -li is added to the root of a substantive, and thus an adjective is formed that is declined in turn. However, recently it has been defended that a form ending in -l, formerly thought to be an "endingless" variant of the possessive, was indeed a genitive singular.<ref name="YakubovichInscr22">{{cite journal |last1=Yakubovich |first1=Ilya |title=An agreement between the Sardians and the Mermnads in the Lydian language? |journal=Indogermanische Forschungen |date=2017 |volume=122 |pages=265–293 |doi=10.1515/if-2017-0014 |s2cid=171633908 }}</ref> Of an [[ablative case]] there are only a few uncertain examples.

Nouns, adjectives, and pronomina are all declined according to a similar paradigm:{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}<ref name="gusmani1980">{{cite book |last1=Gusmani |first1=Roberto |title=Lydisches Wörterbuch. Ergänzungsband, Lieferung 1-3 |date=1980–1986 |publisher=Carl Winter Universitätsverlag |location=Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-533-02929-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/gusmani-lydisches-worterbuch-2nd-edition-1980/page/n1/mode/2up |access-date=2021-02-07}}</ref><ref name="Sasseville2017">{{cite journal |last1=Sasseville |first1=David |title=The Lydian nominal paradigm of i-mutation |journal=Indo-European Linguistics |date=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=130–146 |doi=10.1163/22125892-00501002 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!
! colspan="2" | Singular
! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Case
! animate !! inanimate
! animate !! inanimate
|-
| Nominative
| -š, -s
| rowspan="2" | -d (-t)
| -(a)š (?)
| rowspan="2" | -a (?) (-añ (?), -Ø (?))
|-
| Accusative
| -ñ (-n)
| -(a)s, -(a)š (?)
|-
| Dative-Locative
| colspan="2" | -λ
| colspan="2" | -añ (-an) (?)
|-
| Genitive
| colspan="2" | -l (?);<br>(Possessive:) -lis, -liñ, -lid,...
| colspan="2" | -añ (?)
|-
| Ablative
| colspan="2" | -d (-t)
| colspan="2" | ?
|}

==== Substantives ====
Examples of substantives:{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}<ref name="gusmani1980" />

{| class="wikitable"
|  || || ciw- || astrko- || artimu- || || mru- || anlola-
|-
|  || || = god || = patron:<br>Lord, Lady || = Artemis || || = stele || = funeral stele
|-
! Case
! colspan="4" align="center" | (animate)
! colspan="3" align="center" | (inanimate)
|-
| Nominative Singular || -š, -s || ciw'''š''' || ast(u)rko'''s''' || artimu'''s''' || rowspan="2" | -d (-t) || mru'''d''' ||
|-
| Accusative Singular || -ñ (-n) || ciw'''ñ''' ||  || artimu'''ñ''' || mru'''d''' || 
|-
| Dative-Locative Sing. || -λ || || astrko'''λ''' || artimu'''λ''' || -λ || mru'''λ''' ||
|-
| Genitive Singular || -l (?) || ||  || artimu'''l''' || -l (?) ||  ||
|-
| Ablative Singular || -d (-t) || ciw'''ad''' (?) || astrko'''t''' (?) ||  || -d (-t) || ||
|-
| Nom./Acc. Plural || -aš, -as (?) ||  ||  ||  || -a (?) (-añ (?), -Ø (?)) || || anlol'''a'''
|-
| Dative-Locative Plural || -añ (?) || ciw'''añ''' ||  ||  || -añ (?) || || anlol'''añ'''
|}

==== Adjectives ====
Examples of adjectives:{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}<ref name="gusmani1980" /><ref name="Sasseville2017" />

{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=2| Case
!
! aλa-<br>{{nobold|other}}
! wissi-, wiswi-{{efn|including ''<u>ni</u>wissi-, <u>ni</u>wiswi-'' {{=}} '<u>not</u> good: bad'.}}<br>{{nobold|good}}
! ipsimši-<br>{{nobold|Ephesian}}
! sfardẽti-<br>{{nobold|Sardian}}{{efn|inhabitant of Sardis.}}
! pakiwali-<br>{{nobold|Pakiwas's}}{{efn|Pakiwas is a person's name.}}
|-
|rowspan=2| Nominative animate
| singular
| -š, -s || aλa'''s''' || wissi'''š''' || ipsimši'''š''' || sfardẽti'''š''' || pakiwali'''š'''
|-
| plural
| -(a)š (?) ||  ||  ||  || sfardẽn'''τ''' {{efn|note that τ (/tʃ/) is written instead of t + š (/t/ + /ʃ/).}} ||
|-
|rowspan=2| Nom./Acc. inanimate
| singular
| -d (-t) || aλa'''d''' || wiswi'''d''' ||   ||  || pakiwali'''d'''
|-
| plural
| -a (?) (-añ (?), -Ø (?)) ||  || (ni)wisw'''a''' ||  ||  ||
|-
|rowspan=2| Dative-Locative
| singular
| -λ || aλa'''λ''' || (ni)wisl'''λ''' ||  ipsiml'''λ''' || sfardẽt'''λ''' || pakiwal'''λ'''
|-
| plural
| -añ (-an) (?) || aλ'''ẽñ''' (?) ||  ||   || sfardẽt'''añ''' ||
|-
|colspan=2| Genitive Plural
| -añ (?) ||  ||  || ipsimñ'''añ''' ||  ||
|}
{{notelist}}

==== Pronomina ====
Examples of pronomina:{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}<ref name="gusmani1980" />

{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=4|
! ẽmi- <br>{{nobold|my, mine}}
! pili- <br>{{nobold|his}}
! eš- <br>{{nobold|this}}
! qi- <br>{{nobold|who, which}}
|-
!colspan=3| Case
!
!colspan=2| (personal)
! (demonstrative)
! (relative, interrogative)
|-
| Nominative
| singular
| animate
| -š, -s || ẽmi'''š''' || pili'''š''' || es'''s''' (e'''s''', e'''š''') || qi'''š''' (qe'''š''', qy'''š''')
|-
| Accusative
| singular
| animate
| -ñ (-n) || ẽm'''ñ''' || pil'''ñ''' || eš'''ñ''' (eš'''n''') || q'''ñ'''
|-
|rowspan=3| Nom./Acc.
| singular
| inanimate
| -d (-t) ||  ||  || eš'''t''' || qi'''d''' (qe'''d''', qy'''d''')
|-
|rowspan=2| plural
| animate
| -aš, -as (?) || ẽmin'''aš''' (?) || pilin'''aš''' ||  || 
|-
| inanimate
| -a (?) (-añ (?), -Ø (?)) || ẽmin'''añ''' (?) || pilin'''añ''' ||  || qid'''a''' (?)
|-
| rowspan=2 colspan=2| Dative-Locative
| singular
| -λ || ẽm'''λ''' || pil'''λ''' || eš'''λ''' || q'''λ'''
|-
| plural
| -añ (-an) (?) ||  ||  || eš'''ñañ''' (?) ||
|-
|colspan=2| Genitive
| singular
| -l (?) ||  || pi'''l''' ||  || 
|}

===Verbs===
Just as in other Anatolian languages verbs in Lydian were conjugated in the present-future and preterite tenses with three persons singular and plural. [[imperative mood|Imperative]] or [[gerundive]] forms have not been found yet. Singular forms are often hard to distinguish from plural forms in the third person present active (both ending in ''-t/-d''): the plural form seems to be in principle nasalized, but this could not always be expressed in the writing.

Lydian distinguished a [[mediopassive voice|mediopassive]] voice with the third-person singular ending ''-t(a)λ'' or ''-daλ'' (derived from Proto-Anatolian *-tori; ''-t(a)λ'' after consonant stems and part of the stems ending in a vowel, ''-daλ'' when [[lenition|lenited]] after other stems ending in a vowel or glide).<ref name="hcm2009">{{cite web |last1=Melchert |first1=H. Craig |title=Medio-Passive Forms in Lydian? |url=https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/fsgusmani.pdf |access-date=2021-02-23}}</ref><ref name="yakubovich">{{cite book |last1=Yakubovich |first1=Ilya |chapter=Showing Reverence in Lydian |pages=399–409 |editor1-last=Catt |editor1-first=Adam Alvah |editor2-last=Kim |editor2-first=Ronald I. |editor3-last=Vine |editor3-first=Brent |title=QAZZU Warrai: Anatolian and Indo-European Studies in Honor of Kazuhiko Yoshida |date=2019 |publisher=Beech Stave Press |isbn=978-0-9895142-6-2 }}</ref>

About a dozen [[grammatical conjugation|conjugations]] can be distinguished, on the basis of (1) the verbal root ending (''a''-stems, consonant stems, -''ši''-stems, etc.), and (2) the endings of the third person singular being either unlenited (''-t; -tλ, -taλ'') or lenited (''-d; -dλ, -daλ''). For example, ''šarpta-''<sup>(t)</sup> (to inscribe, to carve) is an unlenited ''a''-stem (''šarptat'', he inscribes), ''qaλmλa-''<sup>(d)</sup> (to be king) is a lenited ''a''-stem (''qaλmλad'', he rules). Differences between the various conjugations are minor.

Many Lydian verbs are composite, using prefixes such as ''ẽn-'' (= 'in-'?), ''ẽt-'' (= 'into-'<ref name="melchert1993hpa">{{cite journal |id={{INIST|4289439}} |last1=Melchert |first1=H. Craig |title=Historical Phonology of Anatolian |journal=Journal of Indo-European Studies |date=1993 |volume=21 |issue=3–4 |pages=237–257 |url=https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/anathistphon.pdf |access-date=2021-02-27}}</ref>), ''fa-/f-'' ('then, subsequently, again'?<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yakubovich |first1=Ilya |title=Lydian Etymological Notes |journal=Historische Sprachforschung |date=2005 |volume=118 |pages=75–91 |jstor=40849242 }}</ref>), ''šaw-,'' and ''kat-/kaτ-'' (= 'down-'?), and suffixes like ''-ãn-/-ẽn-'' ([[delimitative|durative]]?<ref name="YakubovichInscr22"/>), ''-no-/-ño-'' ([[causative]]?{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p=177}}), ''-ši-'' ([[frequentative|iterative]]?{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p=195}}), and ''-ki-'' or ''-ti-'' ([[denominal verb|denominative]]?{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|pp=151, 212}}); their meaning is often difficult to determine.{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}

Examples of verbal conjugation:<ref name="sass2020">{{cite book |last1=Sasseville |first1=David |title=Anatolian Verbal Stem Formation: Luwian, Lycian and Lydian |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden / Boston |isbn=978-90-04-43628-2 }}{{pn|date=July 2022}}</ref>{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 
|-
! width="10%" | !! width="10%" | !! width="10%" |  !! width="10%" | cẽn(š)i-<sup>(t)</sup> !! width="10%" | cuni/cñi-<sup>(t?)</sup> !! width="10%" | in(ãn)i-<sup>(t)</sup> !! width="10%" | tro-<sup>(d)</sup> !! width="10%" | u-<sup>(d)</sup> !! width="20%" | (other verbs)
|-
|  ||  || '''(ending)''' || ''to dedicate'' || ''to erect'' || ''to make'' || ''to hand over'' || ''to write'' || 
|-
| colspan="9" | '''Active:'''
|-
| rowspan="6" valign="top" | Present/future || 1 Singular || -u, -w || cẽn'''u''' ||  || inãn'''u''' || (kan-)tor'''u'''; <br>(fa-kan-)tro'''w''' ||  || 
|-
| 2 Singular || -š ||  ||  ||  || (fa-)tro'''š''' ||  || 
|-
| 3 Singular || -t, -d ||  ||  || in'''t'''; inãn'''t''' || (kan-)tro'''d''' || (ẽn-)u'''d''' || 
|-
| 1 Plural || -wñ || τẽn'''wñ''' ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| 2 Plural || ? ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| 3 Plural || ~-t || cẽni'''t''', (ši-)τẽni'''t''' ||  ||  || (ta-)tro'''t''' ||  || taqtula- (''= ?''): taqtul'''ãt'''
|-
| rowspan="4" valign="top" | Preterite || 1 Singular || -dñ (~-ñ, -ñ) || cẽnši'''dñ''' ||  || inãn'''idñ''' || tro'''dñ''' ||  || ca- (''to give a share''): (fẽn-)c'''ãñ'''; <br>ow- (''to favor''): ow'''ñ'''
|-
| 3 Singular || -l || cẽna'''l''' || (fa-)cuni'''l''', (fa-)cñi'''l''' || in'''l''', i'''l''' || (ẽn-)tro'''l''' || u'''l''', (kat-)u'''l''' || 
|-
| 1 Plural || -wñ<ref name="hcm2009" /> ||  ||  ||  || (fiš-)tro'''wñ''' ||  ||
|-
| 3 Plural || -rs,<ref name="hcm2009" /> -riš ||  || (fa-)cñi'''riš''' ||  ||  ||  || še- (''to release''): še'''rs'''
|-
| Imperative ||  || ? ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| colspan="2" | Participle || -m(i)- ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || kipτa- (''to act as a'' kipτa): kipτa'''m'''-
|-
| colspan="2" | Infinitive || -l ||  ||  || ina'''l''' ||  || u'''l''' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | Nominal derivative || (A) || -to ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || karf-/korf-: karf'''to-s''' (''= ?'')
|-
| (B) || -λo (-lo) ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || karf-/korf-: šaw-korf'''λo-s''', šaw-karb'''lo-s''' (''= ?'')
|-
| colspan="9" | '''Mediopassive:'''
|-
|  Present/future || 3 Singular || -t(a)λ, -daλ || cẽn'''tλ''' ||  ||  ||  ||  || išlo- (''to honor?''): išlo'''daλ'''
|-
| Preterite || 3 Singular || -rst ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || pife- (''to grant''): pife'''rst'''
|}

=== Particles ===
To emphasize where an important next part of a sentence begins, Lydian uses a series of [[enclitic]] particles that can be affixed to a pivotal word. Examples of such "emphatic" enclitics are -in-, -it-/-iτ-, -t-/-τ-, -at-, and -m-/-um-. When stacked and combined with other suffixes (such as pronomina, or the suffix -k = 'and') veritable clusters are formed. The word ak = 'so..., so if...' provides many examples:{{sfn|Gusmani|1964|p={{pn|date=July 2022}}}}
: akτin (= ak-τ-in) - 'so...', 'so if...', 'yea, if...'
: akmsin (= ak-m-s-in) - 'so if he...' (-s- = 'he'), or (= ak-ms-in) - 'so if to them...' (-ms- = 'to them')
: akmλt (= ak-m-λ-t) - 'so if to him...' (-λ- = 'to him'); etc.