Editing Manuel I Komnenos (section)

==Italian campaign==

===Roger II of Sicily===
[[File:Southern Italy 1112.svg|thumb|Southern Italy in 1112, at the time of Roger II's coming of age, showing the major states and cities. The border of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] in 1154, at the time of Roger's death, is shown by a thicker black line encircling most of southern Italy.]]

In 1147 Manuel was faced with war by [[Roger II of Sicily]], whose fleet had captured the Byzantine island of [[Corfu]] and plundered [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]]. However, despite being distracted by a [[Cuman]] attack in the Balkans, in 1148 Manuel enlisted the alliance of [[Conrad III of Germany]], and the help of the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]], who quickly defeated Roger with their powerful fleet. In 1149, Manuel recovered Corfu and prepared to take the offensive against the Normans, while Roger II sent [[George of Antioch]] with a fleet of 40 ships to pillage Constantinople's suburbs.<ref name="Nor">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall'', 98 and 103</ref> Manuel had already agreed with Conrad on a joint invasion and partition of southern Italy and Sicily. The renewal of the German alliance remained the principal orientation of Manuel's foreign policy for the rest of his reign, despite the gradual divergence of interests between the two empires after Conrad's death.<ref name="M621"/>

Roger died in February 1154 and was succeeded by [[William I of Sicily|William I]], who faced widespread rebellions against his rule in [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]] and [[Apulia]], leading to the presence of Apulian refugees at the Byzantine court. Conrad's successor, [[Frederick Barbarossa]], launched a campaign against the Normans, but his expedition stalled. These developments encouraged Manuel to take advantage of the multiple instabilities on the [[Italian peninsula]].<ref name="D122">J. Duggan, ''The Pope and the Princes'', 122</ref> He sent [[Michael Palaiologos (general)|Michael Palaiologos]] and [[John Doukas (megas hetaireiarches)|John Doukas]], both of whom held the high imperial rank of ''[[sebastos]]'', with Byzantine troops, ten ships and large quantities of gold to invade Apulia in 1155.<ref>J. W. Birkenmeier, ''The Development of the Komnenian Army'', 114<br/>* J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall'', 112</ref> The two generals were instructed to enlist the support of Frederick, but he declined because his demoralised army longed to get back north of the Alps as soon as possible.{{Cref|b}} Nevertheless, with the help of disaffected local barons, including Count [[Robert II of Bassunvilla|Robert of Loritello]], Manuel's expedition achieved astonishingly rapid progress as the whole of [[southern Italy]] rose up in rebellion against the Sicilian Crown and the untried William I.<ref name="M621"/> There followed a string of spectacular successes as numerous strongholds yielded either to force or the lure of gold.<ref name=Norwich/>

===Papal-Byzantine alliance===
The city of [[Bari]], which had been the capital of the Byzantine [[Catapanate of Italy]] for centuries before the arrival of the Normans, opened its gates to the Emperor's army, and the overjoyed citizens tore down the Norman citadel. After the fall of Bari, the cities of [[Trani, Apulia|Trani]], [[Giovinazzo]], [[Andria]], [[Taranto]] and [[Brindisi]] were also captured. William arrived with his army, including 2,000 knights, but was heavily defeated.<ref name="N112-113">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall'', 112–113</ref>

Encouraged by the success, Manuel dreamed of the restoration of the Roman Empire, at the cost of union between the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and the [[Catholic Church]], a prospect which would frequently be offered to the Pope during negotiations and plans for alliance.<ref name="Vas7">[[Alexander Vasiliev (historian)|A. A. Vasiliev]], ''History of the Byzantine Empire'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0832/_P1A.HTM VII]</ref> If there was ever a chance of reuniting the eastern and western churches, and coming to reconciliation with the Pope permanently, this was probably the most favourable moment. The [[Papacy]] was never on good terms with the Normans, except when under duress by the threat of direct military action. Having the "civilised" Byzantines on its southern border was infinitely preferable to the Papacy than having to constantly deal with the troublesome Normans of Sicily. It was in the interest of [[Pope Adrian IV]] to reach a deal if at all possible, since doing so would greatly increase his own influence over the entire Orthodox Christian population. Manuel offered a large sum of money to the Pope for the provision of troops, with the request that the Pope grant the Byzantine emperor lordship of three maritime cities in return for assistance in expelling William from Sicily. Manuel also promised to pay 5,000 pounds of gold to the Pope and the [[Papal Curia|Curia]].<ref name="W18-2">William of Tyre, ''Historia'', XVIII, [http://thelatinlibrary.com/williamtyre/18.html#2 2]</ref> Negotiations were hurriedly carried out, and an alliance was formed between Manuel and Hadrian.<ref name="D122"/>

{| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "Alexios Komnenos and Doukas ... had become captive to the Normans' lord [and] again ruined matters. For as they had already pledged to the Sicilians many things not then desired by the emperor, they robbed the Romans of very great and noble achievements. [They] ... very likely deprived the Roman of the cities too soon."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | '''''John Cinnamus'''''<ref>J. Cinnamus, ''Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus'', 172</ref>
|}

At this point, just as the war seemed decided in his favour, events turned against Manuel. Byzantine commander Michael Palaiologos alienated allies with his attitude, stalling the campaign as Count [[Robert III of Loritello]] refused to speak to him. Although the two were reconciled, the campaign had lost some of its momentum: Michael was soon recalled to Constantinople, and his loss was a major blow to the campaign. The turning point was the [[Battle of Brindisi (1156)|Battle of Brindisi]], where the Normans launched a major counter-attack by both land and sea. At the approach of the enemy, the mercenaries that had been hired with Manuel's gold demanded huge increases in their pay. When this was refused, they deserted. Even the local barons started to melt away, and soon John Doukas was left hopelessly outnumbered. The arrival of [[Alexios Komnenos Bryennios]] with some ships failed to retrieve the Byzantine position.{{Cref|d}} The naval battle was decided in favour of the Normans, while John Doukas and Alexios Bryennios (along with four Byzantine ships) were captured.<ref name="B115">J. W. Birkenmeier, ''The Development of the Komnenian Army'', 115<br/>* J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall'', 115</ref> Manuel then sent [[Alexios Axouch]] to [[Ancona]] to raise another army, but by this time William had already retaken all of the Byzantine conquests in Apulia. The defeat at Brindisi put an end to the restored Byzantine reign in Italy; in 1158 the Byzantine army left Italy and never returned again.<ref>J. W. Birkenmeier, ''The Development of the Komnenian Army'', 115–116<br/>* A. A. Vasiliev, ''History of the Byzantine Empire'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0832/_P1A.HTM VII]</ref> Both [[Nicetas Choniates]] and Kinnamos, the major Byzantine historians of this period, agree, however, that the peace terms Axouch secured from William allowed Manuel to extricate himself from the war with dignity, despite a devastating raid by a Norman fleet of 164 ships (carrying 10,000 men) on [[Euboea]] and [[Almyros|Almira]] in 1156.<ref name="M61J">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall'', 116<br/>* P. Magdalino, ''The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos'', 61</ref>

===Failure of the Church union===
[[File:Adrian IV, servus servorum dei (cropped).png|thumb|left|upright|[[Pope Adrian IV]], who negotiated with Manuel against the Norman king [[William I of Sicily]]]]

During the Italian campaign, and afterwards, during the struggle of the Papal Curia with Frederick, Manuel tried to sway the popes with hints of a possible union between the Eastern and Western churches. Although in 1155 [[Pope Adrian IV]] had expressed his eagerness to prompt the reunion of the churches,{{Cref|e}} hopes for a lasting Papal-Byzantine alliance came up against insuperable problems. Adrian IV and his successors demanded recognition of their religious authority over all Christians everywhere and sought superiority over the Byzantine emperor; they were not at all willing to fall into a state of dependence from one emperor to the other.<ref name="Vas7"/> Manuel, on the other hand, wanted an official recognition of his secular authority over both East and West.<ref>J. W. Birkenmeier, ''The Development of the Komnenian Army'', 114</ref> Such conditions would not be accepted by either side. Even if a pro-western emperor such as Manuel agreed, the Greek citizens of the empire would have rejected outright any union of this sort, as they did almost three hundred years later when the Orthodox and Catholic churches were briefly united under the pope. In spite of his friendliness towards the Roman Church and his cordial relations with all the popes, Manuel was never honoured with the title of ''[[Augustus (title)|augustus]]'' by the popes. And although he twice sent embassies to [[Pope Alexander III]] (in 1167 and 1169) offering to reunite the Greek and Latin churches, Alexander refused, under pretext of the troubles that would follow union.<ref name="AGB">Abbé Guettée, ''The Papacy'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20040322110754/http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/guettee10.html Chapter VII]<br/>* J. W. Birkenmeier, ''The Development of the Komnenian Army'', 114</ref>

The final results of the Italian campaign were limited in terms of the advantages gained by the Empire. The city of Ancona became a Byzantine base in Italy, accepting Manuel as sovereign. The Normans of Sicily had been damaged and now came to terms with the Empire, ensuring peace for the rest of Manuel's reign. The Empire's ability to get involved in Italian affairs had been demonstrated. However, given the enormous quantities of gold which had been lavished on the project, it also demonstrated the limits of what money and diplomacy alone could achieve. The expense of Manuel's involvement in Italy must have cost the treasury a great deal (probably more than 2.16 million ''hyperpyra'' or 30,000 pounds of gold), and yet it produced only limited solid gains.<ref name="B116">J. Birkenmeier, ''The Development of the Komnenian Army'', 116</ref><ref name="Tread643">W. Treadgold, ''A History of the Byzantine State and Society'', 643</ref>

===Byzantine policy in Italy after 1158===
[[Image:B alexander III2.jpg|thumb|Frederick Barbarossa submits to the authority of Pope Alexander III after his defeat at the [[Battle of Legnano]] ([[fresco]] in the Palazzo Pubblico in [[Siena]], by [[Spinello Aretino]]).]]

After 1158, under the new conditions, the aims of the Byzantine policy changed. Manuel now decided to oppose the objective of the [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty to directly annex Italy, which Frederick believed should acknowledge his power. When the war between [[Frederick Barbarossa]] and the northern [[Italian commune]]s started, Manuel actively supported the [[Lombard League]] with money subsidies, agents, and, occasionally, troops.<ref name="ReferenceA">Rogers, Clifford J, ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology: Vol. 1.'', 290</ref> The walls of [[Milan]], demolished by the Germans, were restored with Manuel's aid.<ref name="MV84">P. Magdalino, ''The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos'', 84<br/>* A. A. Vasiliev, ''History of the Byzantine Empire'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0832/_P1A.HTM VII]</ref> Ancona remained important as a centre of Byzantine influence in Italy. The Anconitans made a voluntary submission to Manuel, and the Byzantines maintained representatives in the city.<ref>Abulafia, D. (1984) ''Ancona, Byzantium and the Adriatic, 1155–1173'', Papers of the British School at Rome, Vol. 52, pp. 195–216, 211</ref> Frederick's defeat at the [[Battle of Legnano]], on 29 May 1176, seemed rather to improve Manuel's position in Italy. According to Kinnamos, [[Cremona]], [[Pavia]] and a number of other "[[Liguria]]n" cities went over to Manuel;<ref name="M84">J. Cinnamus, ''Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus'', 231<br/>* P. Magdalino, ''The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos'', 84</ref> his relations were also particularly favourable in regard to [[Genoa]] and [[Pisa]], but not to [[Republic of Venice|Venice]]. In March 1171 Manuel had suddenly broken with Venice, ordering all 20,000 Venetians on imperial territory to be arrested and their property confiscated.<ref name="MV93">P. Magdalino, ''The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos'', 93</ref> Venice, incensed, [[Byzantine–Venetian war of 1171|sent a fleet of 120 ships]] against Byzantium. Due to an epidemic, and pursued by 150 Byzantine ships, the fleet was forced to return without great success.<ref name="Nor4">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall'', 131</ref> In all probability, friendly relations between Byzantium and Venice were not restored in Manuel's lifetime.<ref name="Vas7"/>