Editing Middle Dutch (section)

==Dialects==

Middle Dutch was not a single homogeneous language. The language differed by area, with different areas having a different pronunciation and often using different vocabulary. The dialect areas were affected by political boundaries. The sphere of political influence of a certain ruler also created a sphere of linguistic influence, with the language within the area becoming more homogeneous. Following, more or less, the political divisions of the time, several large dialect groups can be distinguished. However, the borders between them were not strong, and a [[dialect continuum]] existed between them, with spoken varieties near the edges of each dialect area showing more features of the neighbouring areas.

Middle Dutch has four major dialects groups:<ref>Colette M. van Kerckvoorde: ''An Introduction to Middle Dutch.'' Berlin and New York, 1993, p. 1</ref>
# Flemish in Flanders and Zeeuws in Zeeland,
# Brabantic in Brussels, Leuven, Antwerp, Mechelen, Breda,
# Hollandic in the county of Holland,
# Limburgic in the East.
Flemish, Brabantic and Hollandic are known as West Franconian, while Limburgic is known as East Franconian (not to be confused with the High German dialect [[East Franconian German|East Franconian]]).

In a finer classification there are:<ref>Adolphe van Loey, ''Altniederländisch und Mittelniederländisch'', in: Ludwig Erich Schmitt (ed.), ''Kurzer Grundriß der germanischen Philologie bis 1500: Band 1: Sprachgeschichte'', Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin, 1970, p. 253ff., here p. 255f.</ref>
* Flemish <!-- ({{lang|de|Flämisch}}) -->
** West Flemish <!-- ({{lang|de|Westflämisch}}) -->
** East Flemish <!-- ({{lang|de|Ostflämisch}}) -->
* Brabantic <!-- ({{lang|de|Brabantisch}}) -->
** West Brabantic <!-- ({{lang|de|Westbrabantisch}}) -->
** East Brabantic <!-- ({{lang|de|Ostbrabantisch}}) -->
* Hollandic <!-- ({{lang|de|Holländisch}}) -->
* Utrechts <!-- ({{lang|de|Utrechtisch}}) -->
* Limburgic <!-- ({{lang|de|Limburgisch}}) -->

===Brabantian===

[[Brabantian dialect|Brabantian]] was spoken primarily in the [[Duchy of Brabant]]. It was an influential dialect during most of the Middle Ages, during the so-called "Brabantian expansion" in which the influence of Brabant was extended outwards into other areas. Compared to the other dialects, Brabantian was a kind of "middle ground" between the coastal areas on one hand, and the Rhineland and Limburg on the other. Brabantian Middle Dutch has the following characteristics compared to other dialects:

* Merger of â and ā, articulated as a back vowel.
* Use of the form {{lang|dum|g(h)i}} for the second-person plural pronoun.
* {{IPA|/ft/}} > {{IPA|/xt/}}
* Early diphthongization of {{IPA|/iː/}} and {{IPA|/yː/}}.
* Tended towards Rhinelandic and/or Limburgish in the easternmost areas, with [[Umlaut (linguistics)|umlaut]] of long vowels and diphthongs. This in turn led to stronger use of umlaut as a grammatical feature, in for example diminutives.
* Lack of umlaut {{IPA|/a/}} > {{IPA|/e/}} before {{IPA|/xt/}}, in western varieties.

===Flemish===

Flemish, consisting today of [[West Flemish|West]] and [[East Flemish]] and [[Zeelandic]], was spoken in the [[County of Flanders]], northern parts of the [[County of Artois]] and areas around the towns of [[Calais]] and [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]]. Though due to their intermediary position between West Flemish and [[Brabantian dialect|Brabantian]], the East Flemish dialects have also been grouped with the latter.<ref>{{cite book|last1=ed|first1=Keith Brown|title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics|date=2007|publisher=Elsevier|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-0-08-044299-0|edition=2.}}</ref> Flemish had been influential during the earlier Middle Ages (the "Flemish expansion") but lost prestige to the neighbouring Brabantian in the 13th century. Its characteristics are:

* Fronted realisation {{IPA|/æː/}} for â.
* Unrounding of rounded front vowels.
* Loss of {{IPA|/h/}}, with the occasional [[hypercorrection]] found in texts.
* Opening diphthong articulation of ê and ô, often spelled {{angbr|ee}} and {{angbr|oe}}.
* Old Dutch {{IPA|/iu/}} developed into {{IPA|/iə/}} instead of {{IPA|/yː/}}, thus giving forms such as ''vier'' ("fire") where other dialects have ''vuur''.
* Lowering of {{IPA|/e/}} to {{IPA|/a/}} before {{IPA|/r/}} + consonant, often also with lengthening. The change is generally limited to West Flemish before dentals, while before labials and velars it is more widespread.
* Lack of umlaut {{IPA|/a/}} > {{IPA|/e/}} before {{IPA|/xt/}}.
* {{IPA|/i/}} > {{IPA|/e/}} in some words.
* {{IPA|/o/}} > {{IPA|/e/}} sometimes before {{IPA|/r/}} + consonant in West Flemish.

===Hollandic===

[[Hollandic]] was spoken in the [[County of Holland]]. It was less influential during most of the Middle Ages but became more so in the 16th century during the "Hollandic expansion", during which the [[Eighty Years' War]] took place in the south. It shows the following properties:

* Strong [[Ingvaeonic]] influence from earlier [[Frisians|Frisian]] presence in the area. This became more apparent closer to the coast and further north ([[West Friesland (historical region)|West Friesland]]).
* â and ā merged and had a fronted articulation (which forms the basis for the modern standard Dutch pronunciation).
* Occasional occurrence of the [[Ingvaeonic nasal-spirant law]]. Seen in some place names, such as ''-mude'' ("mouth") where more southwestern areas retain the nasal: ''-monde''.
* Use of the form ''ji'' for the second-person plural pronoun.
* Retention of {{IPA|/ft/}}.
* Lack of umlaut {{IPA|/a/}} > {{IPA|/e/}} before {{IPA|/xt/}}.

===Limburgish===

[[Limburgish language|Limburgish]] was spoken by the people in the provinces of modern [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Dutch]] and [[Limburg (Belgium)|Belgian Limburg]]. It was not clearly tied to one political area, instead being divided among various areas, including the [[Duchy of Limburg]] (which was south of modern Limburg). It was also the most divergent of the dialects.

* Generally, a strong "southeastern" influence, tying it more to [[Middle High German]] in some respects ("Colognian expansion"). The effects of the [[High German consonant shift]] are occasionally found.
* [[Umlaut (linguistics)|Umlaut]] affects all vowels and is morphologically significant.
* Retention of the older Germanic diphthongs {{IPA|/ɛi/}} and {{IPA|/ɔu/}} where other Middle Dutch dialects have monophthongized these to ê and ô.
* Retention of {{IPA|/u/}} (did not merge with {{IPA|/o/}}) and {{IPA|/uː/}} (remained as a back vowel).
* Orthography is also more eastern. {{angle|u}} represents a back vowel, and vowel length in closed syllables is not marked.
* Full use of ''du'' as the second-person singular pronoun.
* Long ''a'' in words ending in a single consonant, e.g. {{lang|enm|blaet}} for {{lang|enm|blat}}, {{lang|enm|gaef}} for {{lang|enm|gaf}}, etc. and before {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/x/}} + dental,

===Kleverlandish===

Kleverlandish ("Kleverlands") was spoken around the area of the [[Duchy of Cleves]], around the [[Lower Rhine]]. It represented a transitional dialect between Limburgish and [[Middle Low German]].

* It had an eastern influence, with a more eastern-tinted orthography. Umlaut was a regular grammatical feature.
* Stronger [[Middle Low German]] influence.