Editing Multilingualism (section)

===Cognitive ability===
{{Main|Cognitive effects of multilingualism}}There is no evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive function and there is a small bilingual disadvantage in verbal fluency.<ref name="Bylund-2023"/> Some initial reports concluded that people who use more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals,<ref name="Kaushanskaya-2009"/> and this idea persisted in part due to [[publication bias]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Donnelly |first1=Seamus |last2=Brooks |first2=Patricia J. |last3=Homer |first3=Bruce D. |date=2019-02-27 |title=Is there a bilingual advantage on interference-control tasks? A multiverse meta-analysis of global reaction time and interference cost |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |language=en |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=1122–1147 |doi=10.3758/s13423-019-01567-z |issn=1531-5320 |pmid=30815795 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Current meta-analyses find no effect.<ref name="Lehtonen20182">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lehtonen M, Soveri A, Laine A, Järvenpää J, de Bruin A, Antfolk J |date=April 2018 |title=Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/157474/1/Bilingual_meta_analysis.pdf |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=144 |issue=4 |pages=394–425 |doi=10.1037/bul0000142 |pmid=29494195 |s2cid=4444068 |hdl=10810/26594}}</ref>

Individuals who are highly proficient in two or more languages have been reported to have a certain very marginally enhanced or no different [[executive functions|executive function]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA PsycNet |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2020-67422-001.html |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=psycnet.apa.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Lehtonen-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Lehtonen |first1=Minna |last2=Soveri |first2=Anna |last3=Laine |first3=Aini |last4=Järvenpää |first4=Janica |last5=de Bruin |first5=Angela |last6=Antfolk |first6=Jan |date=April 2018 |title=Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/bul0000142 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |language=en |volume=144 |issue=4 |pages=394–425 |doi=10.1037/bul0000142 |pmid=29494195 |s2cid=4444068 |issn=1939-1455|hdl=10810/26594 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and older onset for [[dementia]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bialystok E, Martin MM |title=Attention and inhibition in bilingual children: evidence from the dimensional change card sort task |journal=Dev Sci |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=325–39 |year=2004 |pmid=15595373 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00351.x|s2cid=1510311 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bialystok E, Craik FI, Grady C, Chau W, Ishii R, Gunji A, Pantev C |title=Effect of bilingualism on cognitive control in the Simon task: evidence from MEG |journal=NeuroImage |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=40–49 |year=2005 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.09.044 |pmid=15588595|s2cid=32548028 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://science.time.com/2013/07/18/how-the-brain-benefits-from-being-bilingual/ |title=How the Brain Benefits from Being Bilingual |last=Kluger |first=Jeffrey |date=18 July 2013 |magazine=TIME |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130721064643/http://science.time.com/2013/07/18/how-the-brain-benefits-from-being-bilingual/ |archive-date=21 July 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Atkinson2016">{{Cite journal |vauthors = Atkinson AL |title = Does Bilingualism Delay the Development of Dementia? |journal = Journal of European Psychology Students |year = 2016 |pages = 43–50 |volume = 7 |issue = 1 |doi = 10.5334/jeps.375 |doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Skibba |first=Ramin |title=How a second language can boost the brain |journal=Knowable Magazine |url=https://www.knowablemagazine.org/article/mind/2018/how-second-language-can-boost-brain |doi=10.1146/knowable-112918-1 |language=en |year=2018 |s2cid=189556357 |access-date=4 January 2019 |archive-date=5 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105043454/https://www.knowablemagazine.org/article/mind/2018/how-second-language-can-boost-brain |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> More recently, however, this claim has come under strong criticism<ref name="Atlantic2016">{{Cite web|title = The Bitter Fight Over the Benefits of Bilingualism|url = https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/02/the-battle-over-bilingualism/462114/|website = The Atlantic|access-date = 2016-02-11|language = en-US|first = Ed|last = Yong|date = 10 February 2016|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160211015050/http://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/02/the-battle-over-bilingualism/462114/|archive-date = 11 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="Lehtonen2018">{{cite journal |last1=Lehtonen |first1=Minna |last2=Soveri |first2=Anna |last3=Laine |first3=Aini |last4=Järvenpää |first4=Janica |last5=de Bruin |first5=Angela |last6=Antfolk |first6=Jan |title=Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review. |journal=Psychological Bulletin |date=April 2018 |volume=144 |issue=4 |pages=394–425 |doi=10.1037/bul0000142 |pmid=29494195 |hdl=10810/26594 |s2cid=4444068 |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/157474/1/Bilingual_meta_analysis.pdf |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=21 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221222253/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/157474/1/Bilingual_meta_analysis.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> with repeated failures to replicate.<ref name="deBruin2014">{{cite journal |last1=de Bruin |first1=Angela |last2=Treccani |first2=Barbara |last3=Della Sala |first3=Sergio |title=Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism: An Example of Publication Bias? |journal=Psychological Science |date=January 2015 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=99–107 |doi=10.1177/0956797614557866 |pmid=25475825 |s2cid=13721983 |url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/19401953/Cognitive_advantage_in_bilingualism.pdf |hdl=20.500.11820/1c7d702a-90a7-484d-9d2a-d5841d4a1f49 |hdl-access=free |access-date=6 December 2019 |archive-date=22 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422222130/https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/19401953/Cognitive_advantage_in_bilingualism.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Paap2015">{{cite journal |last1=Paap |first1=Kenneth R. |last2=Johnson |first2=Hunter A. |last3=Sawi |first3=Oliver |title=Bilingual advantages in executive functioning either do not exist or are restricted to very specific and undetermined circumstances |journal=Cortex |date=August 2015 |volume=69 |pages=265–278 |doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2015.04.014 |pmid=26048659 |s2cid=25008687 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Gullifer JW, Titone D | journal=Bilingualism: Language and Cognition | title=Characterizing the social diversity of bilingualism using language entropy | volume=23 | issue=2 | pages=283–294 | date=2020 | doi=10.1017/s1366728919000026 | s2cid=150591937 | url=https://jasonwgullifer.com/files/preprints/gullifer-titone-entropy.pdf | access-date=28 November 2021 | archive-date=28 November 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128003441/https://jasonwgullifer.com/files/preprints/gullifer-titone-entropy.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref> 
Yet, many prior studies do not reliably quantify samples of bilinguals under investigation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Surrain S, Luk G | journal =Bilingualism: Language and Cognition | title=Describing bilinguals: A systematic review of labels and descriptions used in the literature between 2005–2015 | volume=22 | issue=2 | pages=401–415 | date= March 2019 | issn=1366-7289 | doi=10.1017/S1366728917000682| s2cid =149426763 | url =http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:37221624 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> An emerging perspective is that studies on bilingual and multilingual cognitive abilities need to account for validated and granular quantifications of language experience in order to identify boundary conditions of possible cognitive effects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Beatty-Martínez AL, Navarro-Torres CA, Dussias PE, Bajo MT, Guzzardo Tamargo RE, Kroll JF | journal =Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition | title=Interactional context mediates the consequences of bilingualism for language and cognition | volume=46 | issue=6 | pages=1022–1047 | publisher=American Psychological Association | date= 2020 | eissn=1939-1285 | issn=0278-7393 | pmid=31580119 |doi=10.1037/xlm0000770 | pmc=7117987}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Gullifer JW, Chai XJ, Whitford V, Pivneva I, Baum S, Klein D, Titone D | journal=Neuropsychologia | title=Bilingual experience and resting-state brain connectivity: Impacts of L2 age of acquisition and social diversity of language use on control networks | volume=117 | pages=123–134 | date=August 2018 | eissn=1873-3514 | issn=0028-3932 | doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.04.037 | pmid=29727624 | pmc=6086747 | url=https://jasonwgullifer.com/files/preprints/language-entropy-connectivity.pdf | access-date=28 November 2021 | archive-date=28 November 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128003440/https://jasonwgullifer.com/files/preprints/language-entropy-connectivity.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Gullifer JW, Titone D | journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General | title=Engaging proactive control: Influences of diverse language experiences using insights from machine learning. | volume=150 | issue=3 | pages=414–430 | date=October 2020 | eissn=1939-2222 | issn=0096-3445 | doi=10.1037/xge0000933 | pmid=33001688 | pmc=7954783 | url=https://jasonwgullifer.com/files/preprints/gullifer_titone_XGE.pdf | access-date=28 November 2021 | archive-date=28 November 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128003443/https://jasonwgullifer.com/files/preprints/gullifer_titone_XGE.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Sulpizio S, Maschio ND, Mauro GD, Fedeli D, Abutalebi J | journal =NeuroImage | title=Bilingualism as a gradient measure modulates functional connectivity of language and control networks. | volume=205 | date= 2020 | page =116306 | doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116306| pmid =31654763 | s2cid =204837800 | doi-access=free | hdl=10037/18728 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> Second language acquisition results in a lexical deficit due to second language acquisition<ref name="Bylund-2023"/>{{Clarify|date=July 2023}} and bilingualism results in decreased verbal fluency.<ref name="Lehtonen-2018"/>