Editing Old Irish (section)

== Orthography ==
As with most [[:Category:Medieval languages|medieval languages]], the [[orthography]] of Old Irish is not fixed, so the following statements are to be taken as generalisations only. Individual [[manuscript]]s may vary greatly from these guidelines.

The Old Irish [[alphabet]] consists of the following eighteen [[Letter (alphabet)|letters]] of the [[Latin alphabet]]:
: ''a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u,''
in addition to the five '''long [[vowel]]s''', shown by an [[acute accent]] (´):
: ''á, é, í, ó, ú,''
the '''[[lenition|lenited]]''' consonants denoted with a [[dot (diacritic)|superdot]] (◌̇):
: ''ḟ, ṡ,''
and the '''[[eclipsis]]''' consonants also denoted with a superdot:
: ''ṁ, ṅ''.
Old Irish '''[[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]]''' include the lenition consonants:
: ''ch, fh, th, ph, sh'',
the eclipsis consonants:
: ''mb, nd, ng''; ''ṁb, ṅd, ṅg'',
the [[gemination|geminatives]]:
: ''bb, cc, ll, mm, nn, pp, rr, tt'',<!-- Missing some? -->
and the [[diphthongs]]:
: ''aé/áe/aí/ái, oé/óe/oí/ói'',
: ''uí, ía, áu, úa, éu, óu, iu, au, eu'',
: ''ai, ei, oi, ui''; ''ái, éi, ói, úi''.

The following table indicates the broad pronunciation of various consonant letters in various environments:

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan=6|Broad consonant phonemes
|-
!rowspan=2|Letter
!colspan=3|Word-initial
!colspan=2|Non-initial
|-
!unmutated
!eclipsed
!lenited
!single
!geminate
|-
|b
| {{IPAslink|b}}
| {{angbr|mb}} {{IPAslink|m}}
| colspan=2|{{IPAslink|v}}
| {{angbr|bb}} {{IPAslink|b}}
|-
|c
| {{IPAslink|k}}
| {{IPAslink|ɡ}}
| {{angbr|ch}} {{IPAslink|x}}
| {{IPAslink|k}}, {{IPAslink|ɡ}}
| {{angbr|cc}} {{IPAslink|k}}
|-
|d
| {{IPAslink|d}}
| {{angbr|nd}} {{IPA|/N/}}
| colspan=2|{{IPAslink|ð}}
| —
|-
|f
| {{IPAslink|f}}
| {{IPAslink|v}}
| {{angbr|ḟ/fh}} {{IPA|/ /}}
| {{IPAslink|f}}
| —
|-
|g
| {{IPAslink|ɡ}}
| {{angbr|ng}} {{IPAslink|ŋ}}
| colspan=2|{{IPAslink|ɣ}}
| —
|-
|h
| colspan=5|See explanation below
|-
|l
| {{IPA|/L/}}
| —
| colspan=2|{{IPAslink|l}}
| {{angbr|ll}} {{IPA|/L/}}
|-
|m
| {{IPAslink|m}}
| —
| colspan=2|{{IPAslink|ṽ}}
| {{angbr|mm}} {{IPAslink|m}}
|-
|n
| {{IPA|/N/}}
| —
| colspan=2|{{IPAslink|n}}
| {{angbr|nn}} {{IPA|/N/}}
|-
|p
| {{IPAslink|p}}
| {{IPAslink|b}}
| {{angbr|ph}} {{IPAslink|f}}
| {{IPAslink|p}}, {{IPAslink|b}}
| {{angbr|pp}} {{IPAslink|p}}
|-
|r
| {{IPA|/R/}}
| —
| colspan=2|{{IPAslink|r}}
| {{angbr|rr}} {{IPA|/R/}}
|-
|s₁
| {{IPAslink|s}}
| —
| {{angbr|ṡ/sh}} {{IPAslink|h}}
| {{IPAslink|s}}
| —
|-
|s₂<sup>1</sup>
| {{IPAslink|s}}
| —
| colspan=2| {{angbr|f/ph}} {{IPAslink|f}}
| —
|-
|t
| {{IPAslink|t}}
| {{IPAslink|d}}
| {{angbr|th}} {{IPAslink|θ}}
| {{IPAslink|t}}, {{IPAslink|d}}
| {{angbr|tt}} {{IPAslink|t}}
|}
{{smalldiv|1=
:Angle brackets {{angbr}} here indicate graphemic differences to the unmutated consonant.
:A dash (—) here indicates that the respective consonant is not subject to eclipsis. These consonants are: ''r, l, n, s''<ref name="dking">{{cite web |title=Old-Irish Spelling and Pronunciation |first=Dennis |last=King |date=1998-12-11 |website=Sabhal Mòr Ostaig |url=https://www3.smo.uhi.ac.uk/sengoidelc/donncha/labhairt.html |access-date=2025-01-01 }}</ref>
<sup>1</sup>The ''s₂'' arises from older ''*sw'' or ''*sɸ'' which is lenited to {{IPA|/f/}}. In Old Irish there are only several words containing ''s₂'': '''''s'''ïur :: '''f'''ïur, '''ph'''ïur'', sister; '''''s'''esser :: mór'''f'''esser'', six persons / seven (lit. great six) persons; or in reduplicated verbs ''do·'''s'''einn :: do·'''s'''e'''ph'''ainn'', pursue.
}}

When the consonants ''b, d, g'' are eclipsed by the preceding word (always from a word-initial position), their spelling and pronunciation change to: {{angbr|mb}} {{IPAslink|m}}, {{angbr|nd}} {{IPA|/N/}}, {{angbr|ng}} {{IPAslink|ŋ}}<ref name="dking"/>

Generally, geminating a consonant ensures its unmutated sound. While the letter {{angbr|c}} may be voiced {{IPAslink|ɡ}} at the end of some words, but when it is written double {{angbr|cc}} it is always voiceless {{IPAslink|k}} in regularised texts; however, even final {{IPA|/ɡ/}} was often written "cc", as in ''bec / becc'' "small, little" (Modern Irish and Scottish ''beag'', Manx ''beg'').

In later Irish manuscripts, lenited ''f'' and ''s'' are denoted with the letter ''h'' {{angbr|fh}}, {{angbr|sh}}, instead of using a superdot {{angbr|ḟ}}, {{angbr|ṡ}}.<ref name="dking"/>

When initial ''s'' stemmed from Primitive Irish ''*sw-'', its lenited version is {{angbr|f}} {{IPAblink|ɸ}}.

The slender ([[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalised]]) variants of the 13 consonants are denoted with {{IPAslink|ʲ}} marking the letter. They occur in the following environments:
* Before a written ''e, é, i, í''
* After a written ''i'', when not followed by a vowel letter (but not after the diphthongs ''aí, oí, uí'')

Although Old Irish has both a sound {{IPAslink|h}} and a letter ''h'', there is no consistent relationship between the two. Vowel-initial words are sometimes written with an unpronounced ''h'', especially if they are very short (the Old Irish [[preposition]] {{lang|sga|i}} "in" was sometimes written {{lang|sga|hi}}) or if they need to be emphasised (the name of Ireland, {{lang|sga|Ériu}}, was sometimes written {{lang|sga|Hériu}}). On the other hand, words that begin with the sound {{IPA|/h/}} are usually written without it: {{lang|sga|a ór}} {{IPA|/a hoːr/}} "her gold". If the sound and the spelling [[co-occurrence|co-occur]], it is by coincidence, as {{lang|sga|ní hed}} {{IPA|/Nʲiː heð/}} "it is not".

=== Stops following vowels ===
The voiceless stops of Old Irish are ''c, p, t''. They contrast with the voiced stops ''g, b, d''. Additionally, the letter ''m'' can behave similarly to a stop following vowels. These seven consonants often mutate when not in the word-initial position.

In non-initial positions, the single-letter voiceless stops ''c, p,'' and ''t'' become the voiced stops {{IPAslink|ɡ}}, {{IPAslink|b}}, and {{IPAslink|d}} respectively unless they are written double. Ambiguity in these letters' pronunciations arises when a single consonant follows an ''l, n,'' or ''r''.<ref name="dking"/> The lenited stops ''ch, ph,'' and ''th'' become {{IPAslink|x}}, {{IPAslink|f}}, and {{IPAslink|θ}} respectively.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=3|Non-initial voiceless stops {{angbr|c}}, {{angbr|p}}, {{angbr|t}}
|-
!Old Irish
!Pronunciation
!English
|-
|{{lang|sga|macc}}
| {{IPA|/mak/}}
| {{lang|en|son}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|bec}} or {{lang|sga|becc}}
| {{IPA|/bʲeɡ/}}
| {{lang|en|small}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|op}} or {{lang|sga|opp}}
| {{IPA|/ob/}}
| {{lang|en|refuse}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|bratt}}
| {{IPA|/brat/}}
| {{lang|en|mantle}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|brot}} or {{lang|sga|brott}}
| {{IPA|/brod/}}
| {{lang|en|goad}}
|-
!colspan=3|Lenited consonants {{angbr|ch}}, {{angbr|ph}}, {{angbr|th}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|ech}}
| {{IPA|/ex/}}
| {{lang|en|horse}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|oíph}}
| {{IPA|/oif/}}
| {{lang|en|beauty}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|áth}}
| {{IPA|/aːθ/}}
| {{lang|en|ford}}
|}

The voiced stops ''b, d,'' and ''g'' become fricative {{IPAslink|v}}, {{IPAslink|ð}}, and {{IPAslink|ɣ}}, respectively—identical sounds to their word-initial lenitions.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=3|Non-initial voiced stops {{angbr|g}}, {{angbr|b}}, {{angbr|d}}
|-
!Old Irish
!Pronunciation
!English
|-
|{{lang|sga|dub}}
| {{IPA|/duv/}}
| {{lang|en|black}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|mod}}
| {{IPA|/moð/}}
| {{lang|en|work}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|mug}}
| {{IPA|/muɣ/}}
| {{lang|en|slave}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|claideb}}
| {{IPA|/klaðʲəv/}}
| {{lang|en|sword}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|claidib}}
| {{IPA|/klaðʲəvʲ/}}
| {{lang|en|swords}}
|}

In non-initial positions, the letter ''m'' usually becomes the nasal fricative {{IPAslink|ṽ}}, but in some cases it becomes a nasal stop, denoted as {{IPAslink|m}}. In cases in which it becomes a stop, ''m'' is often written double to avoid ambiguity.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=3|Non-initial consonant {{angbr|m}}
|-
!Old Irish
!Pronunciation
!English
|-
|{{lang|sga|dám}}
| {{IPA|/daːṽ/}}
| {{lang|en|company}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|lom}} or {{lang|sga|lomm}}
| {{IPA|/Lom/}}
| {{lang|en|bare}}
|}

=== Stops following other consonants ===
Ambiguity arises in the pronunciation of the stop consonants (''c, g, t, d, p, b'') when they follow ''l, n,'' or ''r'':
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=3|Homographs involving {{angbr|l}}, {{angbr|n}}, {{angbr|r}}
|-
!Old Irish
!Pronunciation
!English
|-
|{{lang|sga|derc}}
| {{IPA|/dʲerk/}}
| {{lang|en|hole}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|derc}}
| {{IPA|/dʲerɡ/}}
| {{lang|en|red}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|daltae}}
| {{IPA|/daLte/}}
| {{lang|en|fosterling}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|celtae}}
| {{IPA|/kʲeLde/}}
| {{lang|en|who hide}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|anta}}
| {{IPA|/aNta/}}
| {{lang|en|of remaining}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|antae}}
| {{IPA|/aNde/}}
| {{lang|en|who remain}}
|}

After ''m'', the letter ''b'' is naturally a stop {{IPAslink|b}}. After ''d, l, r'', the letter ''b'' is fricative {{IPAslink|v}}:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=3|Consonant {{angbr|b}}
|-
!Old Irish
!Pronunciation
!English
|-
|{{lang|sga|imb}}
| {{IPA|/imʲbʲ/}}
| {{lang|en|butter}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|odb}}
| {{IPA|/oðv/}}
| {{lang|en|knot}} (in a tree)
|-
|{{lang|sga|delb}}
| {{IPA|/dʲelv/}}
| {{lang|en|image}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|marb}}
| {{IPA|/marv/}}
| {{lang|en|dead}}
|}

After ''n'' or ''r'', the letter ''d'' is a stop {{IPAslink|d}}:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=3|Consonant {{angbr|d}}
|-
!Old Irish
!Pronunciation
!English
|-
|{{lang|sga|bind}}
| {{IPA|/bʲiNʲdʲ/}}
| {{lang|en|melodious}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|cerd}}
| {{IPA|/kʲeRd/}}
| {{lang|en|art, skill}}
|}

After ''n, l'', or ''r'', the letter ''g'' is usually a stop {{IPAslink|ɡ}}, but it becomes a fricative {{IPAslink|ɣ}} in a few words:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=3|Consonant {{angbr|g}}
|-
!Old Irish
!Pronunciation
!English
|-
|{{lang|sga|long}}
| {{IPA|/Loŋɡ/}}
| {{lang|en|ship}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|delg}} or {{lang|sga|delc}}
| {{IPA|/dʲelɡ/}}
| {{lang|en|thorn}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|argat}} or {{lang|sga|arggat}}
| {{IPA|/arɡəd/}}
| {{lang|en|silver}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|ingen}}<ref name="ingen" group=*>
*''ingen'' {{IPA|/inʲɣʲən/}} "daughter" < Ogam {{sm|inigena}} < Proto-Celtic *eni-genā (cf. [[Latin]] ''indigenā'' "(female) native", [[Ancient Greek]] ''engónē'' "granddaughter").
*''ingen'' {{IPA|/iNʲɡʲən/}} "claw, nail" < Proto-Celtic *angʷīnā < PIE *h₃n̥gʷʰ- (cf. Latin ''unguis'').
</ref>
| {{IPA|/inʲɣʲən/}}
| {{lang|en|daughter}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|ingen}}<ref name="ingen" group=*/>
| {{IPA|/iNʲɡʲən/}}
| {{lang|en|nail, claw}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|bairgen}}
| {{IPA|/barʲɣʲən/}}
| {{lang|en|loaf of bread}}
|}

=== The consonants ''l, n, r'' ===
The letters ''l, n, r'' are generally written double when they indicate ''tense sonorants'' and single when they indicate ''lax sonorants''. Originally, it reflected an actual difference between single and geminate consonants, as tense sonorants in many positions (such as between vowels or word-finally) developed from geminates. As the gemination was lost, the use of written double consonants was repurposed to indicate tense sonorants. Doubly written consonants of this sort do not occur in positions where tense sonorants developed from non-geminated Proto-Celtic sonorants (such as word-initially or before a consonant).
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Old Irish
!Pronunciation
!English
|-
|{{lang|sga|corr}}
| {{IPA|/koR/}}
| {{lang|en|crane}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|cor}}
| {{IPA|/kor/}}
| {{lang|en|putting}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|coll}}
| {{IPA|/koL/}}
| {{lang|en|hazel}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|col}}
| {{IPA|/kol/}}
| {{lang|en|sin}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|sonn}}
| {{IPA|/soN/}}
| {{lang|en|stake}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|son}}
| {{IPA|/son/}}
| {{lang|en|sound}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|ingen}}<ref name="ingen" group=*/>
| {{IPA|/inʲɣʲən/}}
| {{lang|en|daughter}}
|-
|{{lang|sga|ingen}}<ref name="ingen" group=*/>
| {{IPA|/iNʲɡʲən/}}
| {{lang|en|nail, claw}}
|}

Geminate consonants appear to have existed since the beginning of the Old Irish period, but they were simplified by the end, as is generally reflected by the spelling. Eventually, however, ''ll, mm, nn, rr'' were repurposed to indicate nonlenited variants of those sounds in certain positions.

=== Vowels ===
Written vowels ''a, ai, e, i'' in poststressed syllables (except when absolutely word-final) all seem to represent phonemic {{IPAslink|ə}}. The particular vowel that appears is determined by the quality (broad vs. slender) of the surrounding consonants and has no relation to the etymological vowel quality:
:{|class="wikitable"
! Preceding consonant !! Following consonant !! Spelling !! Example
|-
| broad || broad || {{angbr|a}} || {{lang|sga|díg'''a'''l}} {{IPA|/ˈdʲiːɣəl/}} "vengeance" ([[nominative case|nom.]])
|-
| broad || slender (in open syllable) || {{angbr|a}} ||
|-
| broad || slender (in closed syllable) || {{angbr|ai}} || {{lang|sga|díg'''ai'''l}} {{IPA|/ˈdʲiːɣəlʲ/}} "vengeance" ([[accusative case|acc.]]/[[dative case|dat.]])
|-
| slender || broad || {{angbr|e}} || {{lang|sga|dlig'''e'''d}} {{IPA|/ˈdʲlʲiɣʲəð/}} "law" ([[accusative case|acc.]])
|-
| slender || slender || {{angbr|i}} || {{lang|sga|dlig'''i'''d}} {{IPA|/ˈdʲlʲiɣʲəðʲ/}} "law" ([[genitive case|gen.]])
|}

It seems likely that spelling variations reflected [[allophonic]] variations in the pronunciation of {{IPA|/ə/}}.