Editing Organizational behavior (section)

==Topics==

=== Consulting ===
Consultants use principles developed in organizational behavior research to assess clients' organizational problems and provide high quality services.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ob.blogsite.org/index.php/2018/02/06/how-to-work-with-a-demanding-client/|title=How to work with a demanding client – Organizational Behavior Guide for Consultants|date=2018-02-06|work=Organizational Behavior Guide for Consultants|access-date=2018-02-09}}</ref>
A robust framework to analyze the consultant-client relationship is key in the success of any consulting engagement.<ref>{{cite web|author = H. Chalutz Ben-Gal, Tzafrir, S. S., (2011)|title = Consultant-Client Relationship: One of the Secrets to Effective Organizational Change? |url = https://english.afeka.ac.il/media/1360239/10229.pdf|publisher = Journal of Organizational Change Management, vol. 24(5), p. 662-679.}}</ref>

===Counterproductive work behavior===
{{Main|Counterproductive work behavior}}
Counterproductive work behavior is employee behavior that harms or intends to harm an organization.<ref>Spector, P. E., & Fox, S. (2005). The Stressor-Emotion Model of Counterproductive Work Behavior. In S. Fox, P. E. Spector (Eds.), ''Counterproductive work behavior: Investigations of actors and targets'' (pp. 151-174). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. {{doi|10.1037/10893-007}}</ref>

===Decision-making===
{{Main|Decision-making}}

Many Organizational behavior researchers embrace the [[rational planning model]].{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} Decision-making research often focuses on how decisions are ordinarily made (normative decision-making), how thinkers arrive at a particular judgement (descriptive decision-making), and how to improve this decision-making (descriptive decision-making).{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}

=== Effects of diversity and inclusion ===
Companies that focus on diversity and inclusion are able to benefit from advantages such as better retention and less intention by staff to quit, increased job satisfaction, lower levels of stress and job withdrawal, higher levels of creativity and innovation, as well as less on-the-job conflict. Diversity, or focusing on differences between individuals and groups is of course important, organizations that have a culture that values the unique perspectives and contributions of all employees, also known as inclusion, may be able to move the needle from not engaged to engaged.<ref>{{Cite journal |author-link=Gallup |date=2018 |title=Three Requirements of a Diverse and Inclusive Culture — and Why They Matter for Your Organization |url=https://my.gallup.com/direct/app/3?refTarget=document&rqp_itemId=313166&rqp_languageCode=en-US&rqp_mediaType=Document&rqp_spaceCodeName=GSSLEARN |journal=Gallup |pages=24}}</ref>

===Employee mistreatment===

There are several types of mistreatments that employees endure in organizations, including: Abusive supervision, bullying, incivility, and sexual harassment. Employees in an organization being mistreated also can suffer work withdrawal. Withdrawing from an organization can be in the form of being late, not fully participating in work duties, or looking for a new job. Employees may file grievances in an organization with retrospect to a procedure or policy or mistreatment with human interactions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boswell |first1=W. R. |last2=Olson-Buchanan |first2=J. B. |title=Experiencing Mistreatment at Work: The Role of Grievance Filing, Nature of Mistreatment, and Employee Withdrawal |date=2004-02-01 |url=http://amj.aom.org/cgi/doi/10.2307/20159565 |journal=Academy of Management Journal |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=129–139 |doi=10.2307/20159565 |jstor=20159565 |issn=0001-4273|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

====Abusive supervision====
{{Main|Abusive supervision}}

Abusive supervision is the extent to which a [[supervisor]] engages in a pattern of behavior that harms subordinates.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tepper | first1 = B. J. | year = 2000 | title = Consequences of abusive supervision | journal = Academy of Management Journal | volume = 43 | issue = 2| pages = 178–190 | doi = 10.2307/1556375 | jstor = 1556375 }}</ref>

====Bullying====
{{Main|Workplace bullying}}
Although definitions of workplace bullying vary, it involves a repeated pattern of harmful behaviors directed towards an individual.<ref>Rayner, C., & Keashly, L. (2005). Bullying at Work: A Perspective From Britain and North America. In S. Fox & P. E. Spector (Eds.), Counterproductive work behavior: Investigations of actors and targets. (pp. 271-296). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.</ref> In order for a behavior to be termed bullying, the individual or individuals doing the harm have to possess (either singly or jointly) more power on any level than the victim.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

====Incivility====
{{Main|Workplace incivility}}

Workplace incivility consists of low-intensity discourteous and [[rude]] behavior and is characterized by an ambiguous intent to harm, and the violation of [[Norm (social)|social norms]] governing appropriate workplace behavior.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Andersson | first1 = L. M. | last2 = Pearson | first2 = C. M. | year = 1999 | title = Tit for tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace | doi = 10.5465/amr.1999.2202131 | journal = Academy of Management Review | volume = 24 | issue = 3| pages = 452–471 }}</ref>

====Sexual harassment====
{{Main|Sexual harassment}}
Sexual harassment is behavior that denigrates or mistreats an individual due to his or her gender, often creating an offensive workplace that interferes with job performance.<ref>Rospenda, K. M., & Richman, J. A. (2005). Harassment and discrimination. In J. Barling, E. K. Kelloway & M. R. Frone (Eds.), Handbook of work stress (pp. 149-188). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.</ref>

===Teams===
{{Main|Team}}

===Job-related attitudes and emotions===
Organizational behavior deals with employee attitudes and feelings, including [[job satisfaction]], [[organizational commitment]], [[job involvement]] and [[emotional labor]]. Job satisfaction reflects the feelings an employee has about his or her job or facets of the job, such as pay or supervision.<ref>Balzer, W. K. & Gillespie, J. Z. (2007). Job satisfaction. In Rogelberg, S. G. (Ed.). Encyclopedia of industrial and organizational psychology Vol. 1 (pp. 406-413). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.</ref> Organizational commitment represents the extent to which employees feel attached to their organization.<ref>Allen, N. J. Organizational commitment. In Rogelberg, S. G. (Ed.). Encyclopedia of industrial and organizational psychology Vol. 2 (pp. 548-551). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.</ref> Job involvement is the extent to which an individual identifies with their job and considers it a material component of their self-worth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rahati|first1=Alireza|last2=Sotudeh-Arani|first2=Hossein|last3=Adib-Hajbaghery|first3=Mohsen|last4=Rostami|first4=Majid|date=December 2015|title=Job Involvement and Organizational Commitment of Employees of Prehospital Emergency Medical System|journal=Nursing and Midwifery Studies|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e30646|doi=10.17795/nmsjournal30646|issn=2322-1488|pmc=4733505|pmid=26835470}}</ref> Emotional labor concerns the requirement that an employee display certain emotions, such smiling at customers, even when the employee does not feel the emotion he or she is required to display.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ashkanasy | first1 = N. M. | last2 = Härtel | first2 = C. E. J. | last3 = Daus | first3 = C. S. | year = 2002 | title = Diversity and emotion: The new frontiers in organizational behavior research | url = http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:13564/Ashkanasy_Hartel_Daus_2002.pdf| journal = Journal of Management | volume = 28 | issue = 3| pages = 307–338 | doi=10.1177/014920630202800304| s2cid = 145258922 }}</ref>

===Leadership===
{{Main|Leadership}}
There have been a number of theories that concern leadership. Early theories focused on characteristics of leaders, while later theories focused on leader behavior, and conditions under which leaders can be effective. Among these approaches are [[contingency theory]], the [[consideration and initiating structure]] model, [[leader-member exchange theory|leader-member exchange or LMX theory]], [[path-goal theory]], [[Behavior modification|behavioural modification]] and [[transformational leadership theory]].

Contingency theory indicates that good leadership depends on characteristics of the leader and the situation.<ref name="Fielder1">Fiedler, F. E. (1978). The contingency model and the dynamics of the leadership process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 59-112). New York: Academic Press.</ref> The Ohio State Leadership Studies identified dimensions of leadership known as consideration (showing concern and respect for subordinates) and initiating structure (assigning tasks and setting performance goals).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fleishman | first1 = E. A. | last2 = Harris | first2 = E. F. | year = 1962 | title = Patterns of leadership behavior related to employee grievances and turnover | journal = Personnel Psychology | volume = 15 | pages = 43–56 | doi=10.1111/j.1744-6570.1962.tb01845.x}}</ref><ref>Levy, P. E. (2006). Industrial/organizational psychology: Understanding the workplace. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref> LMX theory focuses on exchange relationships between individual supervisor-subordinate pairs.<ref name="Novak1">{{cite journal | last1 = Graen | first1 = G. B. | last2 = Novak | first2 = M. A. | last3 = Sommerkamp | first3 = P. | year = 1982 | title = The effects of leader-member exchange and job design on productivity and satisfaction: Testing a dual attachment model | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Performance | volume = 30 | issue = 1| pages = 109–131 | doi = 10.1016/0030-5073(82)90236-7 }}</ref> Path-goal theory is a contingency theory linking appropriate leader style to organizational conditions and subordinate personality.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = House | first1 = R. J. | last2 = Mitchell | first2 = T. R. | year = 1974 | title = Path-goal theory of leadership | journal = Contemporary Business | volume = 3 | pages = 81–98 }}</ref> Transformational leadership theory concerns the behaviors leaders engage in that inspire high levels of motivation and performance in followers. The idea of [[charismatic leadership]] is part of transformational leadership theory.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bass | first1 = B. M. | last2 = Avolio | first2 = B. J. | last3 = Atwater | first3 = L. E. | year = 1996 | title = The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women | journal = Applied Psychology: An International Review | volume = 45 | pages = 5–34 | doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.1996.tb00847.x}}</ref> In behavioural modification, the leader's reward power (ability to give or withhold reward and punishment) is the focus and the importance of giving contingent (vs non-contingent) rewards is emphasized.

===Managerial roles===

{{Main|Mintzberg's managerial roles}}
In the late 1960s [[Henry Mintzberg]], a graduate student at MIT, carefully studied the activities of five executives. On the basis of his observations, Mintzberg arrived at three categories that subsume managerial roles: interpersonal roles, decisional roles, and informational roles.<ref>Robbins, S. P. (2009). Organizational behaviour. Cape Town, Pearson.</ref>

===Motivation===
Retaining talented and successful employees is a key factor for a company to maintain a competitive advantage.  An environment where people can use their talent effectively can help motivate even the most smart, hard-working, difficult individuals. Building great people relies on engagement through motivation and behavioral practices (O'Reilly, C., and Pfeffer, J., 2000).<ref>O'Reilly, C., & Pfeffer, J. _2000_. The "right" people or the "right" organization? Hidden value: How great companies achieve extraordinary results with ordinary people.</ref> Baron and Greenberg (2008)<ref>Baron, Robert A., and Greenberg, Jerald. ''Behavior in organizations'' &ndash; 9th edition. Pearson Education Inc., New Jersey: 2008. p.248</ref> wrote that motivation involves "the set of processes that arouse, direct, and maintain human behavior toward attaining some goal." There are several different theories of motivation relevant to Organizational Behavior, including [[equity theory]],<ref name="Adams1965">Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 276-299). New York: Academic Press.</ref> [[expectancy theory]],<ref name="Vroom1964">Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: John Wiley.</ref> [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]],<ref name="Maslow1943">{{cite journal | last1 = Maslow | first1 = A. H. | year = 1943 | title = A theory of human motivation | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 50 | issue = 4| pages = 370–396 | doi=10.1037/h0054346| citeseerx = 10.1.1.334.7586 }}</ref> [[motivation#Incentive theory|incentive theory]], [[organizational justice]] theory,<ref name="Greenberg1987">{{cite journal | last1 = Greenberg | first1 = J | year = 1987 | title = A taxonomy of organizational justice theories | journal = Academy of Management Review | volume = 12 | pages = 9–22 | doi=10.5465/amr.1987.4306437}}</ref> [[Frederick Herzberg|Herzberg]]'s [[two-factor theory]],<ref name="Herzberg1968">Herzberg, F. (1968, January/February). One more time: How do you motivate employees? Harvard Business Review, 52-62.</ref> and [[Theory X and Theory Y]].<ref name="McGregor, D. M. 1960">McGregor, D. M. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref>

=== Types of motivation ===
Intrinsic Motivation- This behavior happens out of the pure thought of an individual’s need. Not as compensation. This behavior is used out of the pure need of self-motivation. It is the need to prove one’s self worth. Extrinsic motivation is triggered by external rewards. Meaning, the need for a reward outside of themselves feeling accomplished. This can be brought to them by a pay raise, bonuses, rewards like gift cards and many other sorts.{{cn|date=May 2023}}

=== Public Relations ===
Public relations is the practice of managing the communication between the public and the organization, therefore public relations is also related to organizational behavior.

===National culture===

National culture is thought to affect the behavior of individuals in organizations. This idea is exemplified by [[Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory]]. Hofstede surveyed a large number of cultures and identified six dimensions of national cultures that influence the behavior of individuals in organizations.<ref>Hofstede, Geert, Gert Jan Hofstede and Michael Minkov.Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2010</ref> These dimensions include power distance, individualism vs. collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity vs. femininity, long-term orientation vs. short term orientation, and indulgence vs. restraint.

=== Organizational behavior policies ===
Organizational behavior policies inside organizations such as employee dating, are rules that can be applied to employees with fairness. Labor relations, leadership, diversity and inclusion policies, will have more satisfied employees with organizational behavior policies. Policy implications are underutilized in organizations. But the need for implications is important.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aguinis |first1=Herman |last2=Jensen |first2=Søren Henning |last3=Kraus |first3=Sascha |date=August 2022 |title=Policy Implications of Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management Research |url=https://research.cbs.dk/en/publications/policy-implications-of-organizational-behavior-and-human-resource |journal=Academy of Management Perspectives |language=English |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=857–878 |doi=10.5465/amp.2020.0093 |issn=1558-9080|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Organizational citizenship behavior===
{{Main|Organizational citizenship behavior}}

Organizational citizenship behavior is behavior that goes beyond assigned tasks and contributes to the well-being of organizations.<ref>Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA, England: Lexington Books/D C Heath and Com.f</ref>

===Organizational culture===
{{Main|Organizational culture}}

Organizational culture reflects the values and behaviors that are commonly observed in an organization. Investigators who pursue this line of research assume that organizations can be characterized by cultural dimensions such as beliefs, values, rituals, symbols, and so forth.<ref>Shein, Edgar (1992). Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.</ref> Researchers have developed models for understanding an organization's culture or developed typologies of organizational culture. [[Edgar Schein]] developed a model for understanding organizational culture. He identified three levels of organizational culture: (a) artifacts and behaviors, (b) espoused values, and (c) shared basic assumptions. Specific cultures have been related to organizational performance<ref>Kotter, John and Heskett, James L. (1992) Corporate Culture and Performance, Free Press; {{ISBN|0-02-918467-3}}</ref> and effectiveness.<ref>Denison, Daniel R. (1990) Corporate culture and organizational effectiveness, Wiley.</ref>

===Personality===
{{Main|Personality}}
Personality concerns consistent patterns of behavior, [[cognition]], and [[emotion]] in individuals.<ref>Michel, W., Shoda, Y., & Smith, R. E. (2004). ''Introduction to personality: Toward an integration''. New York: Wiley</ref> The study of personality in organizations has generally focused on the relation of specific traits to employee performance. There has been a particular focus on the [[Big Five personality traits]], which refers to five overarching personality traits.

===Occupational stress===
{{Main|Occupational stress}}

There are number of ways to characterize occupational stress. One way of characterizing it is to term it an imbalance between job demands (aspects of the job that require mental or physical effort) and resources that help manage the demands.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Demerouti | first1 = E. | last2 = Bakker | first2 = A. B. | last3 = Nachreiner | first3 = F. | last4 = Schaufeli | first4 = W. B. | year = 2001 | title = The job demands-resources model of burnout | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 86 | issue = 3| pages = 499–512 | doi = 10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499 | pmid = 11419809 }}</ref>

===Work–family conflict===
{{Main|Work–family conflict}}
[[Chester Barnard]] recognized that individuals behave differently when acting in their work role than when acting in roles outside their work role.<ref name=Barnard1938 /> Work–family conflict occurs when the demands of family and work roles are incompatible, and the demands of at least one role interfere with the discharge of the demands of the other.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Greenhaus | first1 = J. H. | last2 = Beutell | first2 = N. J. | year = 1985 | title = Sources and conflict between work and family roles | journal = Academy of Management Review | volume = 10 | issue = 1| pages = 76–88 | doi=10.5465/amr.1985.4277352}}</ref>