Editing Picture superiority effect (section)

==With age==

Across the lifespan, a gradual development of the picture superiority effect is evident. Some studies have shown that it appears to become more pronounced with age,<ref name="defeyter"/><ref name="whitehouse"/> while others have found that this effect is also observed among younger children (Whitehouse, Mayber, Durkin, 2006<ref name="whitehouse"/>). However, the major contribution in picture superiority in recognition memory among children was familiarity (Defeyter, Russo & McPartlin, 2009<ref name="defeyter"/>). During childhood, specifically among seven-year-olds, the picture superiority effect is lesser in magnitude than in other age groups.<ref name="whitehouse"/> This could be due to the lack of inner speech among younger children supporting the [[Dual-coding theory|dual coding theory]] of Paivio. In healthy older adults, the picture superiority effect was found to be greater than it was for younger adults, in comparison to recognition for words, which was disadvantaged for older adults.<ref name="allywaring">{{cite journal | last1 = Ally | first1 = B. A. | last2 = Waring | first2 = J. D. | last3 = Beth | first3 = E. H. | last4 = McKeever | first4 = J. D. | last5 = Milberg | first5 = W. P. | last6 = Budson | first6 = A. E. | year = 2008 | title = Aging memory for pictures: using high-density event-related potentials to understand the effect of aging on the picture superiority effect | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 46 | issue = 2| pages = 679–689 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.09.011 | pmid = 17981307 | pmc = 2271145 }}</ref> In that regard, seniors can benefit from using pictorial information to retain textual information (Cherry et al., 2008<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cherry|first1=Katie E|last2=Hawley|first2=Karri S|last3=Jackson|first3=Erin M|first4=Julia|last4=Volaufova|author4-link=Júlia Volaufová|last5=Su|first5=Joseph|last6=Jazwinski|first6=Michal|date=2008|title=Pictorial superiority effects in oldest-old people|journal=Memory|doi=10.1080/09658210802215534|pmid=18651263|volume=16|issue=7|pages=728–741|pmc=2575043}}</ref>). While memory for words is impaired for older adults, pictures help restore their impaired memory and function properly (Ally et al., 2008<ref name="allywaring"/>). In addition, older adults have shown the same level of capability for identifying correct items in comparison with young adults when items were accompanied with pictures (Smith, Hunt & Dunlap, 2015). In populations with Alzheimer's disease, and other mild cognitive impairments, the picture superiority effect remains evident.<ref name="allymckeever">{{cite journal | last1 = Ally | first1 = B. A. | last2 = McKeever | first2 = J. D. | last3 = Waring | first3 = J. D. | last4 = Budson | first4 = A. E. | year = 2009 | title = Preserved frontalmemorial processing for pictures in patients with mild cognitive impairment | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 47 | issue = 10| pages = 2044–2055 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.015 | pmid = 19467355 | pmc = 2724267 }}</ref> ERP activity indicates that patients with amnesic mild cognitive impairment utilized frontal-lobe based memory processes to support successful recognition for pictures, which was similar to healthy controls, but not for words.<ref name="allymckeever" />