Editing Pinus pinaster (section)

==== Options for biological control ====
[[Insects]] and [[mites]] that feed on the seeds and cones of ''P.&nbsp;pinaster'' can be effective [[biological control]] options. An insect or mite that acts as an ideal biological control should have a high [[Total fertility rate|reproductive rate]] and be [[Host (biology)|host-specific]], meaning that it preys specifically on ''P.&nbsp;pinaster''. The [[Biological life cycle|life cycle]] of the predator should also match that of its specific host. Two key characteristics the predator should also exhibit are [[Self-limiting (biology)|self-limitation]] and the ability to survive in the presence of a declining prey population.<ref name="Krebs" />  Seed feeding insects are an effective control because they have high reproductive rates and target the seeds without diminishing the positive effect of the plant on the environment. Controlling the spread of ''P.&nbsp;pinaster'' seeds in the region is the key to limiting the growth and spread of this species because ''P. pinaster'' has the ability to produce a large number of seeds that are capable of dispersing very efficiently.{{sfnp|Moran|Hoffmann|Donnelly|van Wilgen|2000}}  One possible option is Trisetacus, an [[Eriophyidae|eriophyid]] mite. The main advantage to using this mite to control the population of ''P.&nbsp;Pinaster'' is its specificity to ''P. pinaster''; it can effectively control the population of ''P.&nbsp;pinaster'' by destroying the growing conelets in ''P.&nbsp;pinaster'' while limiting its impact to only this species. Another possible option is [[Pissodes|''Pissodes validirostris'']], a cone-feeding weevil that lays eggs in developing cones. When the [[larvae]] hatch, they feed on the growing seed tissue, preventing ''P.&nbsp;pinaster'' seeds from forming and dispersing. Although the adults feed on the trees as well, they do not do any damage to the seeds and only feed on the shoots of the tree, so they do not appear to negatively impact the growth of the trees. Different forms of ''P.&nbsp;validirostris'' have diverged to become host-specific to different pine trees. The type of ''P.&nbsp;validirostris'' that originated from [[Portugal]] appears to have specialized to ''P.&nbsp;pinaster''; therefore, this insect may be used in the future to control the spread of ''P.&nbsp;pinaster'' in South Africa.<ref name="Hoffmann">{{cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=J |title=Prospects for the biological control of invasive ''Pinus'' species (''Pinaceae'') in South Africa |year=2011 |pages=393–401 |trans-title=African Entomology}}</ref> The uncertainties regarding the host-specificity of different types of ''P.&nbsp;validirostris'', however, require more research to be completed before the introduction of the weevils into South Africa. An introduction of a species that is not host-specific to ''P.&nbsp;pinaster'' can lead to detrimental effects on both the environment and [[Industry (economics)|industries]] that are dependent on certain tree species. Two other biological control possibilities include the [[pyralid]] moth species [[Dioryctria|''Dioryctria mendasella'']] and ''D.&nbsp;mitatella'', but these species attack the vegetative [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]] instead of just the seeds of ''P.&nbsp;pinaster'', harming the plant itself.{{sfnp|Moran|Hoffmann|Donnelly|van Wilgen|2000}}  As of now, the eriophyid mite and cone-feeding weevil seem to hold the most potential to controlling the spread of ''P.&nbsp;pinaster'' in the regions it has invaded because they destroy the reproductive structures of the target invasive species.