Editing Polonization (section)

==Partitions (1795–1918)==<!-- This section is linked from [[Belarusian language]] -->
Polonization also occurred during times when a Polish state did not exist, despite the empires that [[Partitions of Poland|partition Poland]] applied the policies aimed at reversing the past gains of Polonization or aimed at replacing Polish identity and eradication of Polish national group.<ref name="Thomas">[http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Thomas/Thomas_1913.html The Prussian-Polish Situation: An experiment in Assimilation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050904150707/http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Thomas/Thomas_1913.html |date=4 September 2005 }} by [[W.I. Thomas]].</ref><ref name="Wandycz">Various authors, ''The Treaty of Versailles: a reassessment after 75 years'', Cambridge University Press, 1998, {{ISBN|0-521-62132-1}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zqj-oHp4KsgC&dq=Polonization+partitions&pg=RA3-PA314 Google Print, p.314]</ref><ref name="Suss_Cubb">[[Roland Sussex]], Paul Cubberley, ''The Slavic Languages'', Cambridge University Press, 2007, {{ISBN|0-521-22315-6}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=G2bsJdYrwD4C&dq=partitions+Poland+education&pg=RA2-PA92 Google Print, p.92]</ref>

The Polonization took place in the early years of the [[Prussia]]n partition, where, as a reaction to the persecution of Roman Catholicism during the [[Kulturkampf]], German Catholics living in areas with a Polish majority voluntarily integrated themselves within Polish society, affecting approximately 100,000 Germans in the eastern provinces of Prussia.<ref name="Thomas" />

According to some scholars{{Who|date=June 2011}} the biggest successes in Polonization of the non-Polish lands of former Commonwealth were achieved after the Partitions, in times of persecution of Polishness (noted by [[Leon Wasilewski]]) (1917<ref>Wasilewski L. (Wasilewski 1917) Kresy Wschodnie. – Warszawa: T-wo wydawnicze w Warszawie, 1917. p. VII as cited in (Smalyanchuk 2001), p.24.</ref>), [[Mitrofan Dovnar-Zapolsky]] (1926<ref>(Dovnar 1926) pp.290–291,298.</ref>). Paradoxically, the substantial eastward movement of the Polish ethnic territory (over these lands) and growth of the Polish ethnic regions were taking place exactly in the period of the strongest Russian attack on everything Polish in Lithuania and Belarus.<ref>"In times of Myravyov the Hanger", as noted in (Wasilewski 1917), p. VII as cited in (Smalyanchuk 2001), p.24. See also the note on treatment of Polonisation as self-Polonisation.</ref>

The general outline of causes for that is considered to include the activities of the [[Roman-Catholic Church]]<ref>As noted in (Wasilewski 1917), p.42 as cited in (Smalyanchuk 2001), p.24. Also noted by Halina Turska in 1930s in "O powstaniu polskich obszarów językowych na Wileńszczyźnie", p.487 as cited in (Smalyanchuk 2001), p.25.</ref> and the cultural influence exacted by the big cities ([[Vilna]], [[Kovno]]) on these lands,<ref>As noted in (Wasilewski 1917), p.42 as cited in (Smalyanchuk 2001), p.24.</ref> the activities of the Vilna educational district in 19th century–1820s,<ref>(Dovnar 1926) pp.290–291,293–298.</ref> the activities of the local administration, still controlled by the local Polish or already Polonized nobility up to the 1863–1864 [[January Uprising|January uprising]],<ref name="Smal-28-Dov-26">(Smalyanchuk 2001), p.28, (Dovnar 1926), pp.303–315,319–320,328–331,388–389.</ref> secret (Polish) schools in second half nineteenth to the beginning of the 20th century (''tajne komplety'')<ref name="Smal-28-Dov-26" /> and the influence of the land estates.<ref name="Smal-28-Dov-26" />

[[File:Lithuanians complaint to the Pope Pius X regarding the usage of the Polish language in the Lithuanian Catholic churches, 1906.jpg|thumb|[[Lithuanians]] complaint to the [[Pope Pius X]] regarding the usage of the Polish language in the [[Catholic Church in Lithuania|Lithuanian Catholic churches]], 1906]]
Following the [[Partitions of Poland|demise of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] in the end of the 18th century, the Polonization trends initially continued in Lithuania, Belarus and Polish-dominated parts of Ukraine as the initially liberal policies of the Empire gave the Polish elite significant concessions in the local affairs. Dovnar-Zapolsky notes<ref name="Dovnar">Довнар-Запольский М. В. ([[Mitrofan Dovnar-Zapolsky]]) История Белоруссии. – 2-е изд. – Мн.: Беларусь, 2005. – 680 с. {{ISBN|985-01-0550-X}}, {{LCCN|2003500047}}</ref> that the Polonization actually intensified under the liberal rule{{citation needed|date=August 2007}} of [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]], particularly due to the efforts of Polish intellectuals who led the [[Vilnius University]] which was organized in 1802–1803 from the Academy in Vilna (''Schola Princeps Vilnensis''), vastly expanded and given the highest ''Imperial'' status under the new name [[Vilnius University|Vilna Imperial University]] (''Imperatoria Universitas Vilnensis'').<ref name=Venc /> By the Emperor's order, the Vilna education district overseen by [[Adam Jerzy Czartoryski|Adam Czartoryski]], a personal friend of Alexander, was greatly expanded to include the vast territories in the West of the [[Russian Empire]] stretching to Kiev in south-east and much of the Polish territory and the development of the university, which had no rival in the whole district, received the highest priority of the Imperial authorities which granted it significant freedom and autonomy.<ref name=Venc>[[Tomas Venclova]], [http://www.lituanus.org/1981_2/81_2_01.htm Four Centuries of Enlightenment. A Historic View of the University of Vilnius, 1579–1979] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623222449/http://www.lituanus.org/1981_2/81_2_01.htm |date=23 June 2021 }}, ''Lituanus'', Volume 27, No.1 – Summer 1981</ref> With the effort of Polish intellectuals who served the [[Rector (academia)|rectors]] of the university, Hieronim Strojnowski, [[Jan Śniadecki]], Szymon Malewski, as well as Czartoryski who oversaw them, the university became the center of Polish patriotism and culture; and as the only University of the district the center attracted the young nobility of all ethnicities from this extensive region.<ref name=Venc /><ref name=Yla>Rev. Stasys Yla, [http://www.lituanus.org/1981_2/81_2_03.htm The Clash of Nationalities at the University of Vilnius] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710102223/http://www.lituanus.org/1981_2/81_2_03.htm |date=10 July 2021 }}, ''Lituanus'', Volume 27, No.1 – Summer 1981</ref>

With time, the traditional Latin was eliminated from the university and by 1816 it was fully replaced by Polish and Russian. This change both affected and reflected a profound change in the Belarusian and Lithuanian secondary schools systems where Latin was also traditionally used as the university was the main source of the teachers for these schools. Additionally, the university was responsible for the textbook selection and only Polish textbooks were approved for printing and usage.<ref name=Yla />

Dovnar-Zapolsky notes that "the 1800s–1810s had seen the unprecedented prosperity of the Polish culture and language in the former Great Duchy of Lithuania lands" and "this era has seen the effective completion of the Polonization of the smallest nobility, with further reduction of the areal of use of the contemporary [[Belarusian language]].<ref name=Dovnar290>Dovnar-Zapolsky, pp.290–298.</ref> also noting that the Polonization trend had been complemented with the (covert) anti-Russian and [[anti-Eastern Orthodox]] trends.<ref name="Dovnar_p293">Dovnar-Zapolsky, pp.293–296.</ref> The results of these trends are best reflected in the [[Ethnic history of the region of Vilnius|ethnic censuses]] in previously non-Polish territories.

Following the Polish [[November uprising]] aimed at breaking away from Russia, the Imperial policies finally changed abruptly.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

In the 19th century, the mostly unchallenged Polonization trend of the previous centuries had been met staunchly by then "[[anti-Polish]]" [[Russification]] policy, with temporary successes on both sides, like Polonization rises in mid-1850s and in 1880s and Russification strengthenings in 1830s and in 1860s.<ref name="Dovnar_p303">Dovnar-Zapolsky, pp.303–315,319–320,328–331.</ref> Any Polonization of the east and west territories (Russian and German partitions) occurred in the situation were Poles had steadily diminishing influence on the government. Partition of Poland posed a genuine threat to the continuation of Polish language-culture in those regions.<ref name="Suss_Cubb" /> As Polonization was centered around Polish culture, policies aimed at weakening and destroying it had a significant impact on weakening Polonization of those regions. This was particularly visible in Russian-occupied Poland, where the Polish culture fared worst, as Russian administration gradually became strongly [[anti-Polish]].<ref name="Suss_Cubb" /> After a brief and relatively liberal early period in the early 19th century, where Poland was allowed to retain some autonomy as the [[Congress Poland]] [[puppet state]],<ref name="Harold Nicolson">[[Harold Nicolson]], ''The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity: 1812–1822 '', Grove Press, 2001, {{ISBN|0-8021-3744-X}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=qm5BNjqrGsUC&dq=Congress+Poland+puppet&pg=PA171 Google Print, p.171]</ref> the situation for Polish culture steadily worsened.

=== Lithuanian and Belarusian lands ===
A complicated linguistic situation developed on the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Polish speakers used a "Kresy" variant of Polish ([[Northern Borderlands dialect]]) that retained archaic Polish features as well as many remnants of [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and some features of [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]].{{sfn|Januszewska-Jurkiewicz|2010|p=42}} Linguists distinguish between official language, used in the Church and cultural activities, and colloquial language, closer to the speech of the common people. Inhabitants of a significant part of the [[Vilnius region]] used a variant of the Belarusian language, which was influenced mainly by Polish, but also by Lithuanian, Russian and Jewish. This language was referred to as "simple speech" ({{langx|pl|mowa prosta}}), and was treated by many as a dialect variety of Polish. In fact, it was a kind of "mixed language" serving as an interdialect of the cultural borderland.{{sfn|Januszewska-Jurkiewicz|2010|p=43}} This language became a gateway to the progressive Slavization of the Lithuanian population.

The knowledge of Slavonic intedialect made it easier for Lithuanians to communicate with their Slavic neighbors, who spoke Polish, Russian, or Belarusian. The attractiveness and cultural prestige of the Polish language and its common use in church caused the process to continue and lead to the full adoption of the Polish language. Among the Belarusian population, the usage of Polish was limited to official relations, while at home, the local language was still spoken.{{sfn|Januszewska-Jurkiewicz|2010|p=44}} As a result, the Lithuanian language retreated under the pressure of Polish faster than Belarusian. This led to the formation of a compact Polish language area between the Lithuanian and Belarusian language areas, with Vilnius as the center.{{sfn|Januszewska-Jurkiewicz|2010|p=45}} After some time, especially in the Vilnius region, ignorance of the Polish language was considered a lack of cultural savvy. In ceremonial situations it was advisable to use Polish. This gradually limited the use of simple speech to everyday life situations, and gave rise to a sense of contempt for it and Belarusian as the language of work, cursing, but also more emotional and impetuous.{{sfn|Januszewska-Jurkiewicz|2010|p=54}}

In the Belarusian territories, the Polonization processes were intensified by the struggle of the Russian authorities against the [[Catholic Church]]es. The liquidation of the [[Ruthenian Uniate Church|Uniate Church]] and forced conversions to Orthodoxy provoked resistance among the local community. The Russian authorities opposed the Catholic Church, called the "Polish faith", to the Orthodox Church, called the "Russian faith". As a result, referring to oneself as a "Pole" was the same as referring to oneself as a "Catholic."{{sfn|Januszewska-Jurkiewicz|2010|p=57}} After Latin, Polish was considered the second language of worship, so attempts to replace it with Russian or local languages were resisted by local population.{{sfn|Januszewska-Jurkiewicz|2010|pp=57–59}}

The spread of Polish language and culture, and eventually Polish national consciousness, was fostered not only by its prevalence among the upper classes, but also among the impoverished, declassed nobility. Their representatives regarded the nobility's traditions, inextricably linked with Polishness, as a marker of prestige, so they cultivated their attachment to the Polish national tradition. And due to the lack of an impassable property and cultural barrier, they exerted influence on the surrounding peasantry.{{sfn|Januszewska-Jurkiewicz|2010|pp=48–49}} Paradoxically, this was fostered by the anti-Polish and anti-[[szlachta]] Russian policy, which gave relief to peasants for the purchase of land. As a result, the property gap between the petty gentry and the peasantry decreased, which resulted in the appearance of mixed marriages, which in turn led to the spread of Polish culture among the peasants.{{sfn|Januszewska-Jurkiewicz|2010|pp=49–51}}

The emergence of the [[Lithuanian National Revival|Lithuanian national movement]] in the 1880s slowed down the process of Polonization of the ethnically Lithuanian population, but also cemented a sense of national identity among a significant portion of the Polish-speaking Lithuanian population. The feeling of a two-tier Lithuanian-Polish national identity, present throughout the period, had to give way to a clear national declaration. Previously, every inhabitant of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania had been considered a Lithuanian, but in the face of the emergence of the Lithuanian national movement, which considered only those who spoke Lithuanian as Lithuanians, Polish-speaking residents of Lithuania more and more often declared themselves as Poles.{{sfn|Januszewska-Jurkiewicz|2010|p=56}} The dispute over the auxiliary language of services (Polish or Lithuanian) in the churches on the eastern border of ethnic Lithuania, which heated up from the end of the nineteenth century, influenced the formation of Polish consciousness and the adoption of the Polish language among those believers whose ancestors had abandoned Lithuanian for plain speech.{{sfn|Januszewska-Jurkiewicz|2010|pp=78–79}}

The Lithuanian historian Vaidas Banys has said the following about Polonization within the Catholic Church of Lithuania in the 19th century:<blockquote>"The 'Polonomaniacs' announced that the Catholic Church in Lithuania is a Polish church and no other national manifestations are welcome in it. Lithuanian religious services were obstructed, while there was whistling during Lithuanian singing and even fistfights. One event resounded throughout all of Lithuania in 1901, when a jubilee cross with a Lithuanian inscription was thrown away from [[Šėta]]'s church. So-called 'Lithuanomaniacs' ({{Langx|pl|litwomany}}) priests were punished, moved to poorer parishes, or humiliated in their ministry."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jakubauskienė |first=Rasa |date=2021-06-04 |title=Kėdainiai – (ne)draugiškas miestas religinėms mažumoms? |url=https://rinkosaikste.lt/kedainiai-nedraugiskas-miestas-religinems-mazumoms/ |website=rinkosaikste.lt |language=lt}}</ref></blockquote>