Editing Saraiki language (section)

==Phonology==
Saraiki's consonant inventory is similar to that of neighbouring [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]].{{sfn|Masica|1991}} It includes [[phoneme|phonemically]] distinctive [[implosive consonant]]s, which are unusual among the Indo-European languages. In Christopher Shackle's analysis, Saraiki distinguishes up to 48 consonants and 9 [[monophthong]] vowels.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|pp=12, 18}}

===Vowels===
The "centralised"{{efn|The terms "centralised" and "peripheral" are used in {{Harvnb|Shackle|1976}} and {{Harvnb|Shackle|2003}}.}} vowels {{IPA|/ɪ ʊ ə/}} tend to be shorter than the "peripheral" vowels {{IPA|/i ɛ a o u/}}.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|pp=12–13}} The central vowel {{IPA link|ə|/ə/}} is more [[Open vowel|open]] and [[Back vowel|back]] than the corresponding vowel in neighbouring varieties.{{sfn|Shackle|2003|p=588}} [[Vowel nasalisation]] is distinctive: {{IPA|/'ʈuɾẽ/}} 'may you go' vs. {{IPA|/'ʈuɾe/}} 'may he go'.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=17}} Before {{IPA|/ɦ/}}, the contrast between {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/ə/}} is neutralised.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=32}} There is a high number of vowel sequences, some of which can be analysed as [[diphthong]]s. 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Saraiki vowels{{efn|The symbols used follow {{harvp|Shackle|2003}}. {{harvp|Shackle|1976}} has ''{{IPA|ʌ}}'' for ''{{IPA|ə}}'' and ''{{IPA|æ}}'' for ''{{IPA|ɛ}}''.}}
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Near-front vowel|Near-front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Near-back vowel|Near-back]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-align=center
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}} || || || || {{IPA link|u}}
|-align=center
! [[Near-close vowel|Near-close]]
| || {{IPA link|ɪ}} || || {{IPA link|ʊ}} ||
|-align=center
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}} || || || || {{IPA link|o}}
|-align=center
! [[Near-open vowel|Near-open]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}} || || {{IPA link|ə}} || || 
|-align=center
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| || || {{IPA link|a}} || ||
|}

===Consonants===
Saraiki possesses a large inventory of [[consonants]]:{{sfn|Shackle|2003|p=590}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!colspan="2"|
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-alv.]]/<br />[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!rowspan=5| [[Stop consonant|Stop]]/<br />[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t̪}}
| {{IPA link|ʈ}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}
| {{IPA link|k}}
|
|-
! <small>[[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʰ}}
| {{IPA link|t̪ʰ}}
| {{IPA link|ʈʰ}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃʰ}}
| {{IPA link|kʰ}}
| 
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d̪}}
| {{IPA link|ɖ}}
| {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Breathy voice|voiced aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA link|bʱ}}
| {{IPA link|d̪ʱ}}
| {{IPA link|ɖʱ}}
| {{IPA link|d͡ʒʱ}}
| {{IPA link|ɡʱ}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Implosive consonant|implosive]]</small>
| {{IPA link|ɓ}}
|
| {{IPA link|ᶑ}}
| {{IPA link|ʄ}}
| {{IPA link|ɠ}}
|
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
! <small>plain</small>
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
| {{IPA link|ɳ}}
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}
| {{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Breathy voice|aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA link|mʱ}}
| {{IPA link|nʱ}}
| {{IPA link|ɳʱ}}
| 
| 
|
|-
! rowspan=3| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
|
| {{IPA link|ʃ}}
| {{IPA link|x}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|v}}
| {{IPA link|z}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɣ}}
| {{IPA link|ɦ}}
|-
! <small>[[Breathy voice|voiced aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA link|vʱ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Tap consonant|Tap]]
! <small>plain</small>
|
| {{IPA link|ɾ}}
| {{IPA link|ɽ}}
|
|
|
|-
! <small>[[Breathy voice|aspirated]]</small>
|
| {{IPA link|ɾʱ}}
| {{IPA link|ɽʱ}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
! <small>plain</small>
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
|
| {{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|-
! <small>[[Breathy voice|aspirated]]</small>
|
| {{IPA link|lʱ}}
|
|
|
|
|}

In its [[stop consonant]]s, Saraiki has the typical for Indo-Aryan four-fold contrast between [[Voiced consonant|voiced]] and [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]], and [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] and unaspirated. In parallel to [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] it has additionally developed a set of [[implosive consonants|implosives]], so that for each place of articulation there are up to five contrasting stops, for example: voiceless {{IPA|/tʃala/}} 'custom' ~ aspirated {{IPA|/tʃʰala/}} 'blister' ~ implosive {{IPA|/ʄala/}} 'cobweb' ~ voiced {{IPA|/dʒala/}} 'niche' ~ voiced aspirate {{IPA|/dʒʰəɠ/}} 'foam'.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=18–19}}

There are five contrasting places of articulation for the stops: [[Velar consonant|velar]], [[Palatal consonant|palatal]], [[retroflex]], [[Dental consonant|dental]] and [[Bilabial consonant|bilabial]]. The dentals {{IPA|/t tʰ d dʰ/}} are articulated with the [[Laminal consonant|blade of the tongue]] against the surface behind the teeth. The retroflex stops are [[post-alveolar]], the articulator being the [[Apical consonant|tip of the tongue]] or sometimes the [[Subapical consonant|underside]].{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=22}}
There is no dental implosive, partly due to the lesser retroflexion with which the [[retroflex implosive]] {{IPA|/ᶑ/}} is pronounced. The palatal stops are here somewhat arbitrarily represented with {{IPA|[tʃ]}} and {{IPA|[dʒ]}}.{{efn|They are transcribed as such by {{harvtxt|Awan|Baseer|Sheeraz|2012|p=127}}. {{Harvtxt|Latif|2003|p=91}} reports that these consonants have similar [[spectrogram]]s to [[Hindustani phonology#Consonants|those of Urdu]]. {{harvtxt|Shackle|1976|p=22}} has them as [[pre-palatal]]. None of these sources discuss the issue at length.}} In casual speech some of the stops, especially {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/g/}} and {{IPA|/dʒ/}}, are frequently rendered as [[fricatives]] – respectively {{IPA|[x]}}, {{IPA|[ɣ]}} and {{IPA|[z]}}.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=21}}

Of the [[Nasal consonant|nasals]], only {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/m/}} are found at the start of a word, but in other phonetic environments there is a full set of contrasts in the place of articulation: {{IPA|/ŋ ɲ ɳ n m/}}. The retroflex {{IPA link|ɳ}} is a realised as a true nasal only if adjacent to a retroflex stop, elsewhere it is a nasalised [[retroflex flap]] {{IPA|[ɽ̃]}}.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=23}} The contrasts {{IPA|/ŋ/}} ~ {{IPA|/ŋɡ/}}, and {{IPA|/ɲ/}} ~ {{IPA|/ɲdʒ/}} are weak; the single nasal is more common in southern varieties, and the nasal + stop cluster is prevalent in central dialects. Three nasals {{IPA|/ŋ n m/}} have aspirated counterparts {{IPA|/ŋʰ nʰ mʰ/}}.<!--no example words are given with the aspirated retroflex-->

The realisation of the [[alveolar tap]] {{IPA|/ɾ/}} varies with the phonetic environment. It is [[Trill consonant|trilled]] if geminated to {{IPA|/ɾɾ/}} and weakly trilled if preceded by {{IPA|/t/}} or {{IPA|/d/}}. It contrasts with the [[retroflex flap]] {{IPA|/ɽ/}} ({{IPA|/taɾ/}} 'wire' ~ {{IPA|/taɽ/}} 'watching'), except in the variety spoken by Hindus.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|pp=20–23, 27}} The fricatives {{IPA|/f v/}} are [[labio-dental]]. The [[Voiced glottal fricative|glottal fricative]] {{IPA|/ɦ/}} is voiced and affects the voice quality of a preceding vowel.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|pp=31–33}}

===Phonotactics and stress===
There are no [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]] in Saraiki.{{sfn|Shackle|2003|p=594}} All consonants except {{IPA|/h j ɳ ɽ/}} can be [[geminated]] ("doubled"). Geminates occur only after stressed centralised vowels,{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=27}} and are phonetically realised much less markedly than in the rest of the Punjabi area.{{sfn|Shackle|2003|p=592}}

A [[Stress (phonetics)|stressed]] syllable is distinguished primarily by its [[Vowel length|length]]: if the vowel is peripheral {{IPA|/i ɛ a o u/}} then it is lengthened, and if it is a "centralised vowel" ({{IPA|/ɪ ʊ ə/}}) then the consonant following it is geminated. Stress normally falls on the first syllable of a word. The stress will, however, fall on the second syllable of a two-syllable word if the vowel in the first syllable is centralised, and the second syllable contains either a diphthong, or a peripheral vowel followed by a consonant, for example {{IPA|/dɪɾ'kʰan/}} 'carpenter'. Three-syllable words are stressed on the second syllable if the first syllable contains a centralised vowel, and the second syllable has either a peripheral vowel, or a centralised vowel + geminate, for example {{IPA|/tʃʊ'həttəɾ/}} 'seventy-four'. There are exceptions to these rules and they account for minimal pairs like {{IPA|/it'la/}} 'informing' and {{IPA|/'itla/}} 'so much'.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=28–29}}

===Implosives===
Unusually for [[South Asian languages]], [[implosive consonant]]s are found in [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], possibly some [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani dialects]],{{sfn|Masica|1991|p=104}} and Saraiki, which has the following series: /{{IPA link|ɓ}} {{IPA link|ᶑ}} {{IPA link|ʄ}} {{IPA link|ɠ}}/.

The "palatal" {{IPA|/ʄ/}} is [[denti-alveolar]]{{sfn|Bahl|1936|p=28}} and [[Laminal consonant|laminal]], articulated further forward than most other palatals.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=22}}{{efn|{{harvtxt|Bahl|1936|p=28}} describes its place of articulation as almost identical to the {{grapheme|d'}} [{{IPA link|ɟ}}] of [[Czech phonology|Czech]].}}

The "[[retroflex]]" {{IPA|/ᶑ/}} is articulated with the [[Apical consonant|tip]] or the [[Subapical consonant|underside]] of the tongue, further forward in the mouth than the plain retroflex stops. It has been described as [[post-alveolar]],{{sfn|Shackle|1976|pp=22–23}} [[pre-palatal]] or [[pre-retroflex]].{{sfn|Bahl|1936|p=28}} {{harvtxt|Bahl|1936|p=30}} reports that this sound is unique in Indo-Aryan and that speakers of Multani take pride in its distinctiveness. The plain voiced {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and the implosive {{IPA|/ᶑ/}} are mostly in [[complementary distribution]] although there are a few minimal pairs, like {{IPA|/ɖakʈəɾ/}} 'doctor' ~ {{IPA|/ᶑak/}} 'mail'.{{sfn|Shackle|2003|pp=590–91}}{{sfn|Shackle|1976|pp=20–21}} The retroflex implosive alternates with the plain voiced dental stop {{IPA|/d/}} in the [[genitive case|genitive]] [[postposition]]/suffix {{IPA|/da/}}, which takes the form of {{IPA|/ᶑa/}} when combined with 1st or 2nd person pronouns: {{IPA|/meᶑa/}} 'my', {{IPA|/teᶑa/}} 'your'.{{sfn|Bahl|1936|p=80}}

A [[dental implosive]] ({{IPA|/ɗ̪/}}) is found in the northeastern [[Jhangi dialect]], considered transitional between Standard Punjabi and Saraiki by {{harvtxt|Wagha|1997|p=229}},
which is characterised by a lack of phonemic contrast between implosives and plain stops,{{sfn|Wagha|1997|pp=234–35}} and a preference for implosives even in words where Saraiki has a plain stop.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=23}} The dental implosive in Jhangi is articulated with the tongue completely covering the upper teeth.{{sfn|Bahl|1936|p=28}} It is not present in Saraiki, although {{harvtxt|Bahl|1936|p=29}} contends that it should be [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]] for the earlier language. Its absence has been attributed to structural factors: the forward articulation of {{IPA|/ʄ/}} and the lesser retroflexion of {{IPA|/ᶑ/}}.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|pp=20–21}}{{sfn|Shackle|2003|pp=590–91}}

Aspirated ([[breathy voiced]]) implosives occur word-initially, where they contrast with aspirated plain stops: ''{{IPA|/ɓʰɛ(h)/}}'' 'sit' ~ ''{{IPA|/bʰɛ/}}'' 'fear'.{{sfn|Bahl|1936|pp=77–78}} The aspiration is not [[phonemic]];{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=22}} it is phonetically realised on the whole syllable,{{sfn|Bahl|1936|pp=39–40}} and results from an underlying {{IPA|/h/}} that follows the vowel, thus {{IPA|[ɓʰɛh]}} is phonemically {{IPA|/ɓɛh/}}.{{sfn|Shackle|1976|p=31}}

The historical origin of the Saraiki implosives has been on the whole{{efn|Saraiki differs for example in the presence of geminated implosives, or the treatment of Sanskrit ''{{IAST|vy-}}'', whose Saraiki reflex {{IPA|/ɓ/}} contrasts with the Sindhi {{IPA|/w/}}.{{harv|Bahl|1936|pp=57–64}}}} the same as in Sindhi. Their source has generally been the older language's series of plain voiced stops, thus [[Sanskrit]] ''{{IAST|'''j'''anayati}}'' > Saraiki ''{{IPA|'''ʄ'''əɲən}}'' 'be born'. New plain voiced stops have in turn arisen out of certain consonants and consonant clusters (for example, ''{{IAST|'''y'''ava}}'' > ''{{IPA|'''dʒ'''ao}}'' 'barley'), or have been introduced in loanwords from [[Sanskrit]], [[Hindi]], [[Persian language|Persian]] or [[English language|English]] (''{{IPA|'''ɡ'''ərdən}}'' 'throat', ''{{IPA|'''b'''əs}}'' 'bus'). The following table illustrates some of the major developments:{{sfn|Bahl|1936|pp=57–64}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
![[Sanskrit]]/<br />[[Prakrit]]
!Saraiki
!example word{{efn|Sanskrit words are transliterated using [[IAST]]. An asterisk ''*'' denotes an unattested but [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]] form.}}
|-
| b-
| rowspan="3" style="background:#e5f5e0"| ɓ
| ''{{IAST|bahu}}'' > ''{{IPA|ɓəhʊ̃}}'' 'many'
|-
| dv-
| ''{{IAST|dvitiya-}}'' > ''{{IPA|ɓja}}'' 'another'
|-
| rowspan="3" | v-
| ''{{IAST|vṛddhā}}'' > ''{{IPA|ɓuɖɖʱa}}'' 'old'
|-
| b
| ''{{IAST|vaṇa-}}'' > ''{{IPA|bən}}'' 'forest'
|-
| v
| ''{{IAST|vartman-}}'' > ''{{IPA|vaʈ}}'' 'path'
|-
| j
| rowspan="2" style="background:#e5f5e0"| ʄ
| ''{{IAST|jihvā}}'' > ''{{IPA|ʄɪbbʰ}}'' 'tongue'
|-
| jy-
| ''{{IAST|jyeṣṭhā}}'' > ''{{IPA|ʄeʈʰ}}'' 'husband's elder brother'
|-
| -jy-
| rowspan="2" style="background:#e5f5e0"| ʄʄ
| ''{{IAST|rajyate}}'' > ''{{IPA|rəʄʄəɲ}}'' 'to satisfy'
|-
| -dy-
| ''{{IAST|adya}}'' > ''{{IPA|əʄʄ{{sup|ə}}}}'' 'today'
|-
| y-
| dʒ
| ''{{IAST|yadi}}'' > ''{{IPA|dʒe}}'' 'if'
|-
| ḍ-
| rowspan="2" style="background:#e5f5e0"| ᶑ
| [[Prakrit|Pk.]] ''{{IAST|gaḍḍaha-}}'' > ''{{IPA|gəᶑᶑũ}}'' 'donkey'
|-
| d-
| ''{{IAST|duḥkha}}'' > ''{{IPA|ᶑʊkkʰ{{sup|ə}}}}'' 'sorrow'
|-
| -rd-
| rowspan="2" style="background:#e5f5e0"| ᶑᶑ
| ''{{IAST|kūrdati}}'' > ''{{IPA|kʊᶑᶑəɲ}}'' 'to jump'
|-
| -dāt-
| ''{{IAST|*kadātana}}'' > ''{{IPA|kəᶑᶑəɳ}}'' 'when'
|-
| -bdh-
| ɖɖ
| ''{{IAST|stabdha}}'' > ''{{IPA|ʈʰəɖɖa}}'' 'cold'
|-
| -ṇḍ-
| ɳɖ
| ''{{IAST|ḍaṇḍaka}}'' > ''{{IPA|ᶑəɳɖa}}'' 'stick'
|-
| g
| rowspan="2" style="background:#e5f5e0"| ɠ
| ''{{IAST|gāva-}}'' > ''{{IPA|ɠã}}'' 'cow'
|-
| rowspan="2" | gr-
| ''{{IAST|grantha}}'' > ''{{IPA|ɠəɳɖʰ}}'' 'knot'
|-
| ɡ
| ''{{IAST|grāma}}'' > ''{{IPA|ɡrã}}'' 'village'
|}

Within South Asia, implosives were first described for [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] by Stake in 1855. Later authors have noted their existence in Multani and have variously called them "recursives" or "injectives", while [[G. A. Grierson|Grierson]] incorrectly treated them as "double consonants".{{sfn|Bahl|1936|pp=4, 10}}