Editing Saudi Arabia (section)

=== 20th century ===
{{Main|Modern history of Saudi Arabia}}
[[File:Dammam No. 7 on March 4, 1938.jpg|thumb|The oil well ''[[Dammam No. 7]]'' on March 4, 1938, the day it struck oil in commercial quantities, becoming the first in Saudi Arabia to do so]]
The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues.<ref>{{cite book |title=Afluence and Poverty in the Middle East |author=Mohamad Riad El-Ghonemy |author-link=Mohamad Riad El-Ghonemy|year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-10033-5 |page=56|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> [[Dammam No. 7|In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered]] in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlled [[Saudi Aramco|Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company)]]. Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally.<ref name="Britannica history" /> Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the centre for newspapers and radio. However, the large influx of [[foreign workers in Saudi Arabia]] in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for [[xenophobia]]. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing.<ref name="Britannica history" /> In 1953, [[Saud of Saudi Arabia]] succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia. In 1964 he was deposed in favour of his half brother [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia]], after an intense rivalry, fuelled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained a 20% control in Aramco, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil.<ref name="BBC timeline">{{cite web |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14703523.amp |title= Saudi Arabia profile - Timeline |author= <!--Not stated--> |date= 4 October 2019 |website= bbc.com |publisher= [[BBC News]] |access-date= 21 September 2023 |quote= |archive-date= 29 September 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230929075327/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14703523.amp |url-status= live }}</ref> In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an [[1973 oil crisis|oil boycott]] against the Western countries that supported Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]] against Egypt and Syria, leading to the quadrupling of oil prices.<ref name="Britannica history" /> In 1975, Faisal was assassinated by his nephew, Prince [[Faisal bin Musaid]] and was succeeded by his half-brother [[Khalid of Saudi Arabia|King Khalid]].<ref name="Al-Rasheed 136-137">[[#Al-Rasheed|Al-Rasheed]], pp. 136–137</ref>[[File:Nasser_and_Faisal.jpg|alt=Nasser and Faisal|thumb|230x230px|Faisal (left) with Egypt's President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in Cairo, 1969]]
By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world.<ref>{{cite book |title=Human Resources Development in Saudi Arabia: Multinationals and Saudization |author=Joy Winkie Viola |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-88746-070-8 |page=37|publisher=International Human Resources Development Corporation }}</ref> Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country;<ref name="Britannica history" /> in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed.<ref name="Al-Rasheed 136-137" /> In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the government<ref>{{cite book |title=The Muslim world after 9/11 |author=Rabasa, Angel |author2=Benard, Cheryl |author3=Chalk, Peter |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8330-3712-1 |page=42|publisher=Rand Corporation }}</ref> and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the [[Iranian Revolution|Iranian Islamic Revolution]]. It was feared that the country's [[Shi'a Islam in Saudi Arabia|Shi'ite minority]] in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the [[1979 Qatif Uprising]].<ref name="Toby Craig Jones 2010 218–219">{{cite book |title=Desert Kingdom: How Oil and Water Forged Modern Saudi Arabia |author=Toby Craig Jones |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-674-04985-7 |pages=218–219|publisher=Harvard University Press }}</ref> The second event was the [[Grand Mosque Seizure]] in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government.<ref name="Toby Craig Jones 2010 218–219" /> The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days, and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce the much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the [[ulema]] a greater role in government.<ref name="Hegghammer24">[[#Hegghammer|Hegghammer]], p. 24</ref> Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia Enters the 21st Century |first=Anthony H. |last=Cordesman |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-275-98091-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/174 174] |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/174 }}</ref>

[[File:Saudi Arabia 2003 CIA map.jpg|thumb|left|Map of Saudi Arabian administrative regions and roadways]]
In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco.<ref>{{cite book|title=Oil, Dollars, Debt, and Crises: The Global Curse of Black Gold|first1=Mahmoud A. |last1=El-Gamal |author2=Amy Myers Jaffe |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-72070-0|page=41}}</ref> King Khalid died of a heart attack in June 1982. He was succeeded by his brother, [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|King Fahd]], who added the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" to his name in 1986 in response to considerable fundamentalist pressure to avoid the use of "majesty" in association with anything except God. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment.<ref name="Britannica history"/> The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernization, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family<ref name="Britannica history" /> leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government.{{sfn|Abir|1993|p=114}}

In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia and [[Kuwait]] spent $25 billion in support of [[Saddam Hussein]] in the [[Iran–Iraq War]] (1980–1988);<ref>Robert Fisk (2005) ''[[The Great War For Civilisation]]''. Fourth Estate. p. 23. {{ISBN|978-1-4000-7517-1}}</ref> however, Saudi Arabia condemned the [[invasion of Kuwait]] in 1990 and asked the United States to intervene.<ref name="Britannica history" /> King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of [[Yemen]] and [[Jordan]] because of their governments' support of [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq]]. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait, which became known as the [[Gulf War]] (1990–1991).<ref name="BBC timeline" />

Saudi Arabia's relations with the West was one of the issues that led to [[List of militant incidents in Saudi Arabia|an increase in Islamist terrorism]] in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. [[Osama bin Laden]] was a Saudi citizen (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the [[1998 United States embassy bombings|1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] in East Africa and the 2000 [[USS Cole bombing|USS ''Cole'' bombing]] near the port of [[Aden]], Yemen. 15 of [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|the hijackers]] involved in the [[September 11 attacks]] were Saudi nationals.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations |first=Christopher |last=Blanchard |publisher=United States Congressional Research Service|year=2009 |pages=5–6}}</ref> Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies.<ref>[[#Hegghammer|Hegghammer]], p. 31</ref>

Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "[[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia|Basic Law]]", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]."<ref name="Britannica history"/>

In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke, and the Crown Prince, [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|Abdullah]], assumed the role of ''de facto'' regent; however, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "[[Sudairi Seven]]").<ref>[[#Al-Rasheed|Al-Rasheed]], p. 212</ref>