Editing Science (section)

=== 19th century ===
{{Main|19th century in science}}[[File:Darwin Tree 1837.png|thumb|upright|The first diagram of an [[Phylogenetic tree|evolutionary tree]] made by [[Charles Darwin]] in 1837|alt=Sketch of a map with captions]]
During the 19th century, many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences; the frequent use of precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist", "physicist", and "scientist"; an increased professionalisation of those studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions of society; the industrialisation of numerous countries; the thriving of popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=367 |chapter=13. Science and the Public}}</ref> During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when [[Wilhelm Wundt]] founded the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leahey |first=Thomas Hardy |title=A History of Psychology: From Antiquity to Modernity |year=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-65242-2 |edition=8th |location=New York |pages=219–253 |chapter=The psychology of consciousness}}</ref>

During the mid-19th century [[Charles Darwin]] and [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] independently proposed the theory of evolution by [[natural selection]] in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin's book ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'', published in 1859.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Padian |first=Kevin |title=Darwin's enduring legacy |journal=Nature |volume=451 |issue=7179 |pages=632–634 |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/451632a |pmid=18256649 |bibcode=2008Natur.451..632P |doi-access=free}}</ref> Separately, [[Gregor Mendel]] presented his paper, "[[Experiments on Plant Hybridisation]]" in 1865,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henig |first=Robin Marantz |author-link=Robin Marantz Henig |url=https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni |title=The monk in the garden: the lost and found genius of Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics |year=2000 |pages=134–138}}</ref> which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miko |first=Ilona |title=Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are they? |journal=Nature Education |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=134 |year=2008 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593/ |access-date=9 May 2021 |archive-date=19 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719224056/http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Early in the 19th century [[John Dalton]] suggested the modern [[atomic theory]], based on Democritus's original idea of indivisible particles called ''atoms''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rocke |first1=Alan J. |year=2005 |title=In Search of El Dorado: John Dalton and the Origins of the Atomic Theory |journal=Social Research |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=125–158 |doi=10.1353/sor.2005.0003 |jstor=40972005 |s2cid=141350239}}</ref> The laws of [[conservation of energy]], [[conservation of momentum]] and [[conservation of mass]] suggested a highly stable universe where there could be little loss of resources. However, with the advent of the [[steam engine]] and the [[Industrial Revolution]] there was an increased understanding that not all forms of energy have the same [[energy quality|energy qualities]], the ease of conversion to useful [[Work (thermodynamics)|work]] or to another form of energy.<ref name="Reichl1980" /> This realisation led to the development of the laws of [[thermodynamics]], in which the free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining: the [[entropy]] of a closed universe increases over time.{{efn|name= HelmholtzGibbsGuthLinde|1= Whether the universe is closed or open, or the [[shape of the universe]], is an open question. The 2nd law of thermodynamics,<ref name="Reichl1980" >{{cite book |last=Reichl |first=Linda |author-link=Linda Reichl |year=1980 |title=A Modern Course in Statistical Physics |url= |location= |publisher=Edward Arnold |isbn=0-7131-2789-9}}</ref>{{rp|9}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Rao |first=Y. V. C. |title=Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics |publisher=Universities Press |isbn=978-81-7371-048-3 |year=1997 |page=158}}</ref> and the 3rd law of thermodynamics<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.aop.2016.07.031 |title=Bounded energy exchange as an alternative to the third law of thermodynamics |year=2016 |last1=Heidrich |first1=M. |journal=Annals of Physics |volume=373 |pages=665–681 |bibcode=2016AnPhy.373..665H}}</ref> imply the [[heat death of the universe]] if the universe is a closed system, but not necessarily for an expanding universe.}}

The [[electromagnetic theory]] was established in the 19th century by the works of [[Hans Christian Ørsted]], [[André-Marie Ampère]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Oliver Heaviside]], and [[Heinrich Hertz]]. The new theory raised questions that could not easily be answered using Newton's framework. The discovery of [[X-ray]]s inspired the discovery of [[radioactivity]] by [[Henri Becquerel]] and [[Marie Curie]] in 1896,<ref>{{cite book |last=Mould |first=Richard F. |title=A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine: with emphasis on photographic records of the early years |year=1995 |publisher=Inst. of Physics Publ. |isbn=978-0-7503-0224-1 |edition=Reprint. with minor corr |location=Bristol |page=12}}</ref> Marie Curie then became the first person to win two Nobel Prizes.<ref name="Estreicher1938">{{cite book |last=Estreicher |first=Tadeusz |title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4 |title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny |year=1938 |page=113 |language=pl |chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich |author-link=Tadeusz Estreicher}}</ref> In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the [[electron]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thomson |first=J. J. |year=1897 |title=Cathode Rays |journal=[[Philosophical Magazine]] |volume=44 |issue=269 |pages=293–316 |doi=10.1080/14786449708621070}}</ref>