Editing Shift work (section)

=== Management practices ===
[[File:Change of work shift at Ford Motor Company.jpg|thumb|4 o'clock shift at the Ford Motor Company assembly plant in Detroit, Michigan, 1910s]]

The practices and policies put in place by managers of round-the-clock or 24/7 operations can significantly influence shift worker alertness (and hence safety) and performance.<ref name = fundamentals>{{ cite web | last1 = Miller | first1 = JC | title = Fundamentals of Shiftwork Scheduling, 3rd Edition: Fixing Stupid | publisher = Smashwords | year = 2013 | url = https://www.smashwords.com/books/view/352352 }}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=December 2023}}

[[Air traffic controller]]s typically work an 8-hour day, 5 days per week. Research has shown that when controllers remain "in position" for more than two hours, even at low traffic levels, performance can deteriorate rapidly, so they are typically placed "in position" for 30-minute intervals (with 30 minutes between intervals).

These practices and policies can include selecting an appropriate shift schedule or [[schedule (workplace)|rota]] and using an [[employee scheduling software]] to maintain it, setting the length of shifts, managing overtime, increasing lighting levels, providing shift worker lifestyle training, retirement compensation based on salary in the last few years of employment (which can encourage excessive overtime among older workers who may be less able to obtain adequate sleep), or screening and hiring of new shift workers that assesses adaptability to a shift work schedule.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blog.intrigma.com/five-foundations-for-a-fair-physician-schedule|title=Five Foundations For A Fair Physician Schedule|publisher=Intrigma Inc.|access-date=2016-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812123242/http://blog.intrigma.com/five-foundations-for-a-fair-physician-schedule|archive-date=2016-08-12|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mandating a minimum of 10 hours between shifts is an effective strategy to encourage adequate sleep for workers. Allowing frequent breaks and scheduling 8- or 10-hour shifts instead of 12-hour shifts can also minimize fatigue and help to mitigate the negative health effects of shift work.<ref name=":3" />

[[File:GROUP OF MINERS WAITING TO GO TO WORK ON THE 4 P.M. TO MIDNIGHT SHIFT AT THE VIRGINIA-POCAHONTAS COAL COMPANY MINE ^4... - NARA - 556348.jpg|thumb|Miners waiting to go to work on the 4 P.M. to midnight shift at the Virginia-Pocahontas Coal Co., 1974]]
Multiple factors need to be considered when developing optimal shift work schedules, including shift timing, length, frequency and length of breaks during shifts, shift succession, worker commute time, as well as the mental and physical stress of the job.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Knauth|first1=Peter|last2=Hornberger|first2=Sonia|date=2003-03-01|title=Preventive and compensatory measures for shift workers|journal=Occupational Medicine|language=en|volume=53|issue=2|pages=109–116|doi=10.1093/occmed/kqg049|pmid=12637595|issn=0962-7480|doi-access=free}}</ref> Even though studies support 12-hour shifts are associated with increased occupational injuries and accident (higher rates with subsequent, successive shifts),<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Folkard|first1=Simon|last2=Lombardi|first2=David A.|date=2006-11-01|title=Modeling the impact of the components of long work hours on injuries and "accidents"|journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine|language=en|volume=49|issue=11|pages=953–963|doi=10.1002/ajim.20307|pmid=16570251|s2cid=10927108 |issn=1097-0274}}</ref> a synthesis of evidence cites the importance of all factors when considering the safety of a shift.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working time, health and safety : a research synthesis paper|last=Philip.|first=Tucker|date=2012|publisher=ILO|others=Folkard, Simon., International Labour Office.|isbn=9789221260615|location=Geneva|oclc=795699411}}</ref>

Shift work was once characteristic primarily of the [[manufacturing industry]], where it has a clear effect of increasing the use that can be made of capital equipment and allows for up to three times the production compared to just a day shift. It contrasts with the use of [[overtime]] to increase production at the margin. Both approaches incur higher wage costs. Although 2nd-shift worker efficiency levels are typically 3–5% below 1st shift, and 3rd shift 4–6% below 2nd shift, the productivity level, i.e. cost per employee, is often 25% to 40% lower on 2nd and 3rd shifts due to fixed costs which are "paid" by the first shift.<ref>Alan Blinder and William Baumol 1993, Economics: Principles and Policy, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, San Diego, p.&nbsp;687.</ref>