Editing Solid-propellant rocket (section)

==Propellant families==
===Black powder (gunpowder) propellant===
[[Gunpowder|Black powder]] (gunpowder) is composed of [[charcoal]] (fuel), [[potassium nitrate]] (oxidizer), and [[sulfur]] (fuel and catalyst). It is one of the oldest [[pyrotechnic]] compositions with application to rocketry. In modern times, black powder finds use in low-power model rockets (such as [[Estes Industries|Estes]] and Quest rockets),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.apogeerockets.com/Rocket_Motors/Estes_Motors|title=Model Rocketry Resources and Components|access-date=16 Aug 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asp-rocketry.com/ecommerce/Quest-Black-Powder-Model-Rocket-Engines.cfm?cat_id=88|title=Quest Black Powder Model Rocket Engines|access-date=16 Aug 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816190952/http://www.asp-rocketry.com/ecommerce/Quest-Black-Powder-Model-Rocket-Engines.cfm?cat_id=88|archive-date=16 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> as it is cheap and fairly easy to produce. The fuel grain is typically a mixture of pressed fine powder (into a solid, hard slug), with a burn rate that is highly dependent upon exact composition and operating conditions. The [[specific impulse]] of black powder is low, around {{convert|80|isp |abbr=on}}. The grain is sensitive to fracture and, therefore, catastrophic failure. Black powder does not typically find use in motors above {{convert|40|N|lbf|abbr=off}} thrust.

===Zinc–sulfur (ZS) propellants===
Composed of powdered [[zinc]] metal and powdered sulfur (oxidizer), ZS or "micrograin" is another pressed propellant that does not find any practical application outside specialized amateur rocketry circles due to its poor performance (as most ZS burns outside the combustion chamber) and fast linear burn rates on the order of 2&nbsp;m/s. ZS is most often employed as a novelty propellant as the rocket accelerates extremely quickly leaving a spectacular large orange fireball behind it.

==="Candy" propellants===
In general, [[rocket candy]] propellants are an oxidizer (typically potassium nitrate) and a sugar fuel (typically [[dextrose]], [[sorbitol]], or [[sucrose]]) that are cast into shape by gently melting the propellant constituents together and pouring or packing the [[amorphous]] [[colloid]] into a mold. Candy propellants generate a low-medium specific impulse of roughly {{convert|130|isp|abbr=on}} and, thus, are used primarily by amateur and experimental rocketeers.

===Double-base (DB) propellants===
DB propellants are composed of two [[monopropellant]] fuel components where one typically acts as a high-energy (yet unstable) monopropellant and the other acts as a lower-energy stabilizing (and gelling) monopropellant. In typical circumstances, [[nitroglycerin]] is dissolved in a [[nitrocellulose]] gel and solidified with additives. DB propellants are implemented in applications where minimal smoke is required yet a medium-high I<sub>sp</sub> of roughly {{convert|235|isp|abbr=on}} is required. The addition of metal fuels (such as [[aluminium]]) can increase performance to around {{convert|250|isp|abbr=on}}, though [[metal oxide]] [[nucleation]] in the exhaust can turn the smoke opaque.

===Composite propellants===
A powdered oxidizer and powdered metal fuel are intimately mixed and immobilized with a rubbery binder (that also acts as a fuel). Composite propellants are often either [[ammonium nitrate|ammonium-nitrate]]-based (ANCP) or [[ammonium perchlorate|ammonium-perchlorate]]-based (APCP). Ammonium nitrate composite propellant often uses [[magnesium]] and/or [[aluminium]] as fuel and delivers medium performance (I<sub>sp</sub> of about {{convert|210|isp|abbr=on}}) whereas [[ammonium perchlorate composite propellant]] often uses aluminium fuel and delivers high performance: vacuum I<sub>sp</sub> up to {{convert|296|isp|abbr=on}} with a single-piece nozzle or {{convert|304|isp|abbr=on}} with a high-area-ratio telescoping nozzle.<ref name="spaceandtech.com"/> Aluminium is used as fuel because it has a reasonable specific energy density, a high volumetric energy density, and is difficult to ignite accidentally. Composite propellants are cast, and retain their shape after the rubber binder, such as [[Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene]] (HTPB), [[cross-links]] (solidifies) with the aid of a curative additive. Because of its high performance, moderate ease of manufacturing, and moderate cost, APCP finds widespread use in space, military, and amateur rockets, whereas cheaper and less efficient ANCP finds use in amateur rocketry and [[gas generator]]s. [[Ammonium dinitramide]], NH<sub>4</sub>N(NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, is being considered as a 1-to-1 chlorine-free substitute for ammonium perchlorate in composite propellants. Unlike ammonium nitrate, ADN can be substituted for AP without a loss in motor performance.

Polyurethane-bound aluminium-APCP solid fuel was used in the submarine-launched [[Polaris missile]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/slbm/a-1.htm|title = Polaris A1 - United States Nuclear Forces}}</ref> APCP used in the [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters|space shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters]] consisted of ammonium perchlorate (oxidizer, 69.6% by weight), aluminium (fuel, 16%), iron oxide (a catalyst, 0.4%), polybutadiene [[acrylonitrile]] (PBAN) polymer (a non-urethane rubber binder that held the mixture together and acted as secondary fuel, 12.04%), and an epoxy [[Curing (chemistry)|curing]] agent (1.96%).<ref name="sts-newsref-srb">{{cite web | url = http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/technology/sts-newsref/srb.html | title = Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters | publisher = NASA | access-date = 2015-10-02 | archive-date = 2019-04-30 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190430095734/https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/technology/sts-newsref/srb.html | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name="returntoflight-system-SRB">{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/returntoflight/system/system_SRB.html | title = Solid Rocket Boosters | publisher = NASA | access-date = 2015-10-02 | archive-date = 2013-04-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130406193019/http://www.nasa.gov/returntoflight/system/system_SRB.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> It developed a specific impulse of 242 seconds (2.37&nbsp;km/s) at sea level or 268 seconds (2.63&nbsp;km/s) in a vacuum. The 2005-2009 [[Constellation Program]] was to use a similar PBAN-bound APCP.<ref>{{cite news |title=NASA Tests Engine With an Uncertain Future |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/31/science/space/31rocket.html?hpw |work=[[New York Times]] |date=August 30, 2010 |access-date=2010-08-31 | first=Kenneth | last=Chang}}</ref>

In 2009, a group succeeded in creating a propellant of [[water]] and nanoaluminium ([[ALICE (propellant)|ALICE]]).

===High-energy composite (HEC) propellants===
Typical HEC propellants start with a standard composite propellant mixture (such as APCP) and add a high-energy explosive to the mix. This extra component usually is in the form of small crystals of [[RDX]] or [[HMX]], both of which have higher energy than ammonium perchlorate. Despite a modest increase in specific impulse, implementation is limited due to the increased hazards of the high-explosive additives.

===Composite modified double base propellants===
Composite modified double base propellants start with a nitrocellulose/nitroglycerin double base propellant as a binder and add solids (typically [[ammonium perchlorate]] (AP) and powdered [[aluminium]]) normally used in composite propellants. The ammonium perchlorate makes up the oxygen deficit introduced by using [[nitrocellulose]], improving the overall specific impulse. The aluminium improves specific impulse as well as combustion stability. High performing propellants such as [[NEPE-75]] used to fuel the [[UGM-133 Trident II#Design|Trident II]] D-5 [[SLBM]] replace most of the AP with [[polyethylene glycol]]-bound [[HMX]], further increasing specific impulse. The mixing of composite and double base propellant ingredients has become so common as to blur the functional definition of double base propellants.

===Minimum-signature (''smokeless'') propellants===
One of the most active areas of solid propellant research is the development of high-energy, minimum-signature propellant using C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>N<sub>6</sub>(NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>6</sub> [[Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane|CL-20 nitroamine]] ([[Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake|China Lake]] compound #20), which has 14% higher energy per mass and 20% higher energy density than HMX. The new propellant has been successfully developed and tested in tactical rocket motors. The propellant is non-polluting: acid-free, solid particulates-free, and lead-free. It is also smokeless and has only a faint shock diamond pattern that is visible in the otherwise transparent exhaust. Without the bright flame and dense smoke trail produced by the burning of aluminized propellants, these smokeless propellants all but eliminate the risk of giving away the positions from which the missiles are fired. The new CL-20 propellant is shock-insensitive (hazard class 1.3) as opposed to current HMX smokeless propellants which are highly detonable (hazard class 1.1). CL-20 is considered a major breakthrough in solid rocket propellant technology but has yet to see widespread use because costs remain high.<ref name="navair.navy.mil"/>

===Electric solid propellants===
Electric solid propellants (ESPs) are a family of high performance [[plastisol]] solid propellants that can be ignited and throttled by the application of electric current. Unlike conventional rocket motor propellants that are difficult to control and extinguish, ESPs can be ignited reliably at precise intervals and durations. It requires no moving parts and the propellant is insensitive to flames or electrical sparks.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://arc.aiaa.org/doi/abs/10.2514/6.2013-4168|chapter=Electrical Solid Propellants: A Safe, Micro to Macro Propulsion Technology|first1=Wayne N.|last1=Sawka|first2=Michael|last2=McPherson|title=49th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference|date=12 July 2013|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|doi=10.2514/6.2013-4168|isbn=978-1-62410-222-6}}</ref>