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Thermal depolymerization
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==Related processes== Although rarely employed presently, [[coal gasification]] has historically been performed on a large scale. Thermal depolymerization is similar to other processes which use [[superheated water]] as a major phase to produce fuels, such as direct [[hydrothermal liquefaction]].<ref>{{cite web| title =Biomass Program, direct Hydrothermal Liquefaction| publisher =US Department of Energy. Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy| date =2005-10-13| url =http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pyrolysis.html#thermal| access-date =2008-01-12| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070312025649/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pyrolysis.html#thermal| archive-date =2007-03-12}}</ref> These are distinct from processes using dry materials to depolymerize, such as [[pyrolysis]]. The term ''thermochemical conversion'' (TCC) has also been used for conversion of biomass to oils, using superheated water, although it is more usually applied to fuel production via pyrolysis.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Demirba | first = Ayhan | title = Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass to Liquid Products in the Aqueous Medium | journal = Energy Sources | volume = 27 | issue = 13 | pages = 1235β1243 | publisher = Taylor Francis | date = 2005-10-07 | doi=10.1080/009083190519357| bibcode = 2005EneSA..27.1235D | s2cid = 95519993 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first = Yuanhui |last = Zhang |author2 = Gerald Riskowski |author3 = Ted Funk |title = Thermochemical Conversion of Swine Manure to Produce Fuel and Reduce Waste |publisher = University of Illinois |year = 1999 |url = http://www.age.uiuc.edu/bee/RESEARCH/tcc/tccpaper3.htm |access-date = 2008-02-05 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080515195211/http://www.age.uiuc.edu/bee/RESEARCH/tcc/tccpaper3.htm |archive-date = 2008-05-15 }}</ref> A demonstration plant due to start up in the Netherlands is said to be capable of processing 64 tons of biomass ([[dry basis]]) per day into oil.<ref>{{cite web | last1 = Goudriaan | first1 = Frans | last2 = Naber | first2 = Jaap | last3 = van den Berg | first3 = Ed | title = Conversion of Biomass Residues to Transportation Fuels with th HTU Process | url = http://www.nvrd.nl/nvrd/proceedings/downloadProceedings.asp?filename=618085%20Paper.pdf&filesize=85441 | access-date = 2008-01-12 | archive-date = 2020-06-16 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200616024142/https://www.nvrd.nl/cms/nonexistingpage.aspx?404%3Bhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.nvrd.nl%3A80%2Fnvrd%2Fproceedings%2FdownloadProceedings.asp%3Ffilename=618085%20Paper.pdf&filesize=85441%2F | url-status = dead }}</ref> Thermal depolymerization differs in that it contains a hydrous process followed by an anhydrous cracking / distillation process. [[Condensation]] polymers bearing cleavable groups such as [[ester]]s and [[amides]] can also be completely depolymerized by [[hydrolysis]] or [[solvolysis]]; this can be a purely chemical process but may also be promoted by enzymes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wei |first1=Ren |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Wolfgang |title=Microbial enzymes for the recycling of recalcitrant petroleum-based plastics: how far are we? |journal=Microbial Biotechnology |date=November 2017 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=1308β1322 |doi=10.1111/1751-7915.12710|pmid=28371373 |pmc=5658625 }}</ref> Such technologies are less well developed than those of thermal depolymerization but have the potential for lower energy costs. Thus far,{{As of when|date=June 2024}} [[polyethylene terephthalate]] has been the most heavily studied polymer.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geyer |first1=B. |last2=Lorenz |first2=G. |last3=Kandelbauer |first3=A. |title=Recycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate) β A review focusing on chemical methods |journal=Express Polymer Letters |date=2016 |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=559β586 |doi=10.3144/expresspolymlett.2016.53|doi-access=free }}</ref> It has been suggested that waste plastic could be converted into other valuable chemicals (not necessarily monomers) by microbial action,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ru |first1=Jiakang |last2=Huo |first2=Yixin |last3=Yang |first3=Yu |title=Microbial Degradation and Valorization of Plastic Wastes |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |date=21 April 2020 |volume=11 |pages=442 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2020.00442|pmid=32373075 |pmc=7186362 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wierckx |first1=Nick |last2=Prieto |first2=M. Auxiliadora |last3=Pomposiello |first3=Pablo |last4=Lorenzo |first4=Victor |last5=O'Connor |first5=Kevin |last6=Blank |first6=Lars M. |title=Plastic waste as a novel substrate for industrial biotechnology |journal=Microbial Biotechnology |date=November 2015 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=900β903 |doi=10.1111/1751-7915.12312|pmid=26482561 |pmc=4621443 }}</ref> but such technology is still in its infancy.
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