Editing Ticuna language (section)

== Phonology ==

=== Vowels ===
Vowels qualities are {{IPA|/a e i ɨ u o/}}. Vowels may be nasalized and/or show creaky voice, under which tones are lowered.<ref name=":0">Anderson, Doris, ''Conversational Ticuna'', Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1962</ref> There are diphthongs {{IPA|/ai̯/}} and {{IPA|/au̯/}} that carry a single tone, contrasting with vowel sequences {{IPA|/ai/}} and {{IPA|/au/}} that carry two tones.

The six vowels may be nasal or laryngealized. The sixth vowel is spelled ''ü''.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! {{small|oral}} || {{small|nasal}}
! {{small|oral}} || {{small|nasal}}
! {{small|oral}} || {{small|nasal}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Close vowel|Close]]
!{{small|plain}}
| {{IPA link|i}} || {{IPA link|ĩ}}
| {{IPA link|ɨ}} || {{IPA link|ɨ̃}}
| {{IPA link|u}} || {{IPA link|ũ}}
|-
!{{small|creaky}}
| {{IPA link|ḭ}} || {{IPA link|ḭ̃}}
| {{IPA link|ɨ̰}} || {{IPA link|ɨ̰̃}}
| {{IPA link|ṵ}} || {{IPA link|ṵ̃}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
!{{small|plain}}
| {{IPA link|e}} || {{IPA link|ẽ}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|o}} || {{IPA link|õ}}
|-
!{{small|creaky}}
| {{IPA link|ḛ}} || {{IPA link|ḛ̃}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|o̰}} || {{IPA link|õ̰}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Open vowel|Open]]
!{{small|plain}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|a}} || {{IPA link|ã}}
| ||
|-
!{{small|creaky}}
| ||
| {{IPA link|a̰}} || {{IPA link|ã̰}}
| ||
|}

=== Tones ===
{{Expand section|date=March 2025}}
Ticuna is an unusually tonal language for South America, with over 10 mostly contour tones. Ticuna has one of the largest tone inventories in the world with 8–12 phonemic tones depending on the dialect.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} Tones are only indicated orthographically, with diacritics, when confusion is likely.

Research has indicated isolated tonal languages with complex tones are more likely to occur in regions of higher humidity and higher mean average temperature because it is believed the vocal folds can produce less consistent tones in colder, drier air. Ticuna was one of the languages of focus in this study due to its prevalence—and complexity—of tones.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Everett |first=Caleb |display-authors=etal |date=February 3, 2015 |title=Climate, vocal folds, and tonal languages: Connecting the physiological and geographic dots |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=1322–7 |bibcode=2015PNAS..112.1322E |doi=10.1073/pnas.1417413112 |pmc=4321236 |pmid=25605876 |s2cid=1678719 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Consonants ===
The consonants of Ticuna consist of the following phonemes:<ref name=":0" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |
![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive]]/<br>[[Affricate]]
!{{small|voiceless}}
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
| ({{IPA link|ɟ}})
| {{IPA link|k}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
!{{small|voiced}}
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d}}
| {{IPA link|dʒ}}
| {{IPA link|g}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}
| {{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɾ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Glide consonant|Glide]]
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
| {{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|}
Natively, Ticuna has no lateral or uvular consonants,<ref name=":0" /> although /l/ is found in some Spanish loanwords.

The affricate {{IPA|/dʒ/}} (spelled "y") may be pronounced as {{IPA|/ɟ/}},<ref>{{Cite book|title=Lengua ticuna: resultados de fonología y sintaxis|last=Montes Rodríguez|first=María Emilia|year=2004}}</ref> and also {{IPA|/j/}}, but only before the vowel {{IPA|/a/}}. A central {{IPA|/ɨ/}} vowel sound may also be pronounced as a back {{IPA|[ɯ]}} sound. Other sounds, {{IPA|/f s x l/}} are found in Spanish loans. 

Consonants may also be glottalized. Glottal stop is spelled ''x.''