Editing Adverse effect (section)

==By situation==

===Medical procedures===
[[Surgery]] may have a number of undesirable or harmful effects, such as [[infection]], [[Bleeding|hemorrhage]], [[inflammation]], [[scar]]ring, loss of function, or changes in local [[blood flow]]. They can be reversible or irreversible, and a compromise must be found by the physician and the patient between the beneficial or life-saving consequences of surgery versus its adverse effects. For example, a limb may be lost to [[amputation]] in case of untreatable [[gangrene]], but the patient's life is saved. Presently, one of the greatest advantages of [[minimally invasive procedure|minimally invasive]] surgery, such as [[laparoscopic surgery]], is the reduction of adverse effects.

Other nonsurgical physical procedures, such as high-intensity [[radiation therapy]], may cause [[burn]]s and alterations in the [[skin]]. In general, these therapies try to avoid damage to healthy [[tissue (biology)|tissues]] while maximizing the therapeutic effect.

[[Vaccination]] may have adverse effects due to the nature of its biological preparation, sometimes using [[attenuated vaccine|attenuated]] [[pathogen]]s and [[toxin]]s. Common adverse effects may be [[fever]], [[malaise]] and local reactions in the vaccination site. Very rarely, there is a serious adverse effect, such as [[eczema vaccinatum]], a severe, sometimes fatal complication which may result in persons who have [[eczema]] or atopic [[dermatitis]].

[[Medical diagnosis|Diagnostic]] procedures may also have adverse effects, depending much on whether they are [[invasive (medical)|invasive]], [[minimally invasive procedure|minimally invasive]] or [[non-invasive (medical)|noninvasive]]. For example, [[allergy|allergic]] reactions to [[radiocontrast]] materials often occur, and a [[colonoscopy]] may cause the perforation of the [[intestine|intestinal]] wall.

===Medications===
{{Main|Adverse drug reaction}}

Adverse effects can occur as a collateral or side effect of many interventions, but they are particularly important in [[pharmacology]], due to its wider, and sometimes uncontrollable, use by way of [[self-medication]]. Thus, [[responsible drug use]] becomes an important issue here. Adverse effects, like [[therapeutic effect]]s of drugs, are a function of [[dose (biochemistry)|dosage]] or drug levels at the target [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], so they may be avoided or decreased by means of careful and precise [[pharmacokinetics]], the change of drug levels in the organism in function of time after administration.

Adverse effects may also be caused by [[drug interaction]]. This often occurs when patients fail to inform their physician and pharmacist of all the medications they are taking, including herbal and dietary supplements. The new medication may interact agonistically or antagonistically (potentiate or decrease the intended therapeutic effect), causing significant [[Disease|morbidity]] and mortality around the world. Drug-drug and food-drug interactions may occur, and so-called "natural drugs" used in [[alternative medicine]] can have dangerous adverse effects. For example, extracts of [[Hypericum perforatum|St John's wort]] (''Hypericum perforatum''), a [[phytotherapy|phytotherapic]] used for treating mild [[Major depressive disorder|depression]] are known to cause an increase in the [[cytochrome P450]] [[enzyme]]s responsible for the [[metabolism]] and elimination of many drugs, so patients taking it are likely to experience a reduction in [[blood]] levels of drugs they are taking for other purposes, such as [[cancer]] [[chemotherapy|chemotherapeutic]] drugs, [[protease inhibitor (pharmacology)|protease inhibitor]]s for [[HIV]] and [[hormonal contraception|hormonal contraceptive]]s.

The scientific field of activity associated with drug safety is increasingly government-regulated, and is of major concern for the public, as well as to [[Pharmaceutical industry|drug manufacturer]]s. The distinction between adverse and nonadverse effects is a major undertaking when a new drug is developed and tested before [[Pharmaceutical marketing|marketing]] it. This is done in [[toxicity]] studies to determine the nonadverse effect level (NOAEL). These studies are used to define the dosage to be used in human testing (phase I), as well as to calculate the maximum admissible daily intake. Imperfections in clinical trials, such as insufficient number of patients or short duration, sometimes lead to [[public health]] disasters, such as those of [[fenfluramine]] (the so-called [[fen-phen]] episode), [[thalidomide]] and, more recently, of [[cerivastatin]] (Baycol, Lipobay) and [[rofecoxib]] (Vioxx), where drastic adverse effects were observed, such as [[teratology|teratogenesis]], [[pulmonary hypertension]], [[stroke]], [[heart disease]], [[neuropathy]], and a significant number of deaths, causing the forced or voluntary [[List of withdrawn drugs|withdrawal]] of the drug from the market.

Most drugs have a large list of nonsevere or mild adverse effects which do not rule out continued usage. These effects, which have a widely variable incidence according to individual sensitivity, include [[nausea]], [[dizziness]], [[diarrhea]], [[malaise]], [[vomiting]], [[headache]], [[dermatitis]], dry mouth, etc. These can be considered a form of pseudo-allergic reaction, as not all users experience these effects; many users experience none at all.

The Medication Appropriateness Tool for Comorbid Health Conditions in Dementia<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.match-d.com.au/|title=MATCH-D Medication Appropriateness Tool for Comorbid Health conditions during Dementia|website=www.match-d.com.au|access-date=2019-06-01|archive-date=2019-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518055626/http://www.match-d.com.au/|url-status=live}}</ref> ([[MATCH-D]]) warns that people with dementia are more likely to experience adverse effects, and that they are less likely to be able to reliably report symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Page AT, Potter K, Clifford R, McLachlan AJ, Etherton-Beer C | title = Medication appropriateness tool for co-morbid health conditions in dementia: consensus recommendations from a multidisciplinary expert panel | journal = Internal Medicine Journal | volume = 46 | issue = 10 | pages = 1189–1197 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27527376 | pmc = 5129475 | doi = 10.1111/imj.13215 }}</ref>

====Examples with specific medications====
* [[Abortion]], [[miscarriage]] or [[uterus|uterine]] [[Bleeding|hemorrhage]] associated with [[misoprostol]] (Cytotec), a labor-inducing drug (this is a case where the adverse effect has been used legally and illegally for performing abortions)<ref>{{cite web|title=Mifepristone and Misoprostol for Abortion |url=http://women.webmd.com/mifepristone-and-misoprostol-for-abortion |work=WebMD |access-date=March 20, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130330130645/http://women.webmd.com/mifepristone-and-misoprostol-for-abortion |archive-date=March 30, 2013 }}</ref>
* [[Substance dependence|Addiction]] to many [[sedative]]s and [[analgesic]]s, such as [[diazepam]], [[morphine]], etc.<ref>{{cite web|title=Morphine Addiction Withdrawal Symptoms and Treatment|url=http://www.rehabinfo.net/morphine-addiction/|work=rehabinfo|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318140153/http://www.rehabinfo.net/morphine-addiction/|archive-date=March 18, 2013}}</ref>
* [[Congenital disorder|Birth defects]] associated with [[thalidomide]]
* [[Bleeding]] of the [[intestine]] associated with [[aspirin]] therapy<ref>{{cite news|title=Even Low Dose of Aspirin Can Cause Intestinal Bleeding|url=http://www.webmd.com/news/20001109/even-low-dose-of-aspirin-can-cause-intestinal-bleeding|newspaper=WebMD News|date=November 9, 2000|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420002953/http://www.webmd.com/news/20001109/even-low-dose-of-aspirin-can-cause-intestinal-bleeding|archive-date=April 20, 2013}}</ref>
* [[Circulatory system|Cardiovascular]] disease associated with [[COX-2 inhibitor]]s (i.e. Vioxx)<ref>{{cite web|title=Coronary Heart Disease|url=http://www.weitzlux.com/vioxx/coronaryheartdisease_3464.html|work=Weitz & Luxenberg P.C.|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530152436/http://www.weitzlux.com/vioxx/coronaryheartdisease_3464.html|archive-date=May 30, 2013}}</ref>
* [[Hearing impairment|Deafness]] and [[Renal failure|kidney failure]] associated with [[gentamicin]] (an [[antibiotic]])<ref>{{cite web|title=Kidney Damage|url=http://www.gentamicin.com/symptoms/kidney-damage|work=Gentamicin Information Center|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504235516/http://www.gentamicin.com/symptoms/kidney-damage|archive-date=2013-05-04|access-date=2013-04-28}}</ref>
* [[Death]], following [[sedation]], in children using [[propofol]] (Diprivan)<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bray RJ | title = Propofol infusion syndrome in children | journal = Pediatric Anesthesia | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = 491–9 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9836214 | doi = 10.1046/j.1460-9592.1998.00282.x | s2cid = 39426004 }}</ref>
* [[depression (mood)|Depression]] or [[Cirrhosis|hepatic injury]] caused by [[interferon]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kraus MR, Schäfer A, Schöttker K, Keicher C, Weissbrich B, Hofbauer I, Scheurlen M | title = Therapy of interferon-induced depression in chronic hepatitis C with citalopram: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study | journal = Gut | volume = 57 | issue = 4 | pages = 531–6 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18079286 | doi = 10.1136/gut.2007.131607 | s2cid = 33773564 }}</ref>
* [[Diabetes mellitus|Diabetes]] caused by [[atypical antipsychotic]] medications (neuroleptic [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] drugs)<ref>{{cite web|title=Diabetes and Antipsychotic Drugs |url=http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/PUarticles/antipsychdiabetes.htm |work=Medsafe |access-date=March 20, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411054626/http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/PUarticles/antipsychdiabetes.htm |archive-date=April 11, 2013 }}</ref>
* [[Diarrhea]] caused by the use of [[orlistat]] (Xenical)<ref>{{cite web|title=Xenical and Diarrhea: a study of 591 users|url=http://www.ehealthme.com/ds/xenical/diarrhea|work=eHealthMe|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920012041/http://www.ehealthme.com/ds/xenical/diarrhea|archive-date=September 20, 2011}}</ref>
* [[Erectile dysfunction]] associated with many drugs, such as [[antidepressant]]s<ref>{{cite web|title=Can anti-depressants cause sexual dysfunction?|url=http://answers.webmd.com/answers/1198242/can-anti-depressants-cause-sexual-dysfunction|date=May 15, 2011|work=WebMD|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20130321093258/http://answers.webmd.com/answers/1198242/can-anti-depressants-cause-sexual-dysfunction|archive-date=March 21, 2013}}</ref>
* [[Fever]] associated with [[vaccination]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapiainen T, Heininger U | title = Fever following immunization | journal = Expert Review of Vaccines | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 419–27 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 16026253 | doi = 10.1586/14760584.4.3.419 | s2cid = 20270210 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Possible Side-effects from Vaccines|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vac-gen/side-effects.htm|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317050028/https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vac-gen/side-effects.htm|archive-date=March 17, 2017|date=2018-07-12}}</ref>
* [[Glaucoma]] associated with [[corticosteroid]]-based [[eye drop]]s<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tripathi RC, Parapuram SK, Tripathi BJ, Zhong Y, Chalam KV | title = Corticosteroids and glaucoma risk | journal = Drugs & Aging | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | pages = 439–50 | date = December 1999 | pmid = 10641955 | doi = 10.2165/00002512-199915060-00004 | s2cid = 22380777 }}</ref>
* [[Alopecia|Hair loss]] and [[anemia]] may be caused by [[chemotherapy]] against [[cancer]], [[leukemia]], etc.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chemotherapy and hair loss: What to expect during treatment|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hair-loss/CA00037|date=March 6, 2012|publisher=Mayo Clinic|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205225448/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hair-loss/CA00037|archive-date=February 5, 2013}}</ref>
* [[Headache]] following [[spinal anaesthesia]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Headache After an Epidural or Spinal Anaesthetic|url=http://www.patient.info/health/headache-after-an-epidural-or-spinal-anaesthetic|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608030026/http://patient.info/health/headache-after-an-epidural-or-spinal-anaesthetic|archive-date=June 8, 2015}}</ref>
* [[Hypertension]] in [[ephedrine]] users, which prompted FDA to remove the [[dietary supplement]] status of [[Ephedra (medicine)|ephedra]] extracts<ref>{{cite web|title=Ephedra (Ephedra sinica) / ma huang|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/ephedra/NS_patient-ephedra|date=September 1, 2012|publisher=Mayo Clinic|access-date=May 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512214339/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/ephedra/NS_patient-ephedra|archive-date=May 12, 2013}}</ref>
* [[Insomnia]] caused by stimulants, [[methylphenidate]] (Ritalin), [[Adderall]], etc.<ref>{{cite news|title=What Are the Side Effects of Adults Taking Ritalin?|author=Bergeson, B.|url=http://www.livestrong.com/article/118071-side-effects-adults-taking-ritalin/|newspaper=Livestrong|date=May 6, 2010|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218033155/http://www.livestrong.com/article/118071-side-effects-adults-taking-ritalin/|archive-date=February 18, 2013}}</ref>
* [[Lactic acidosis]] associated with the use of [[stavudine]] (Zerit, for [[HIV]] therapy)<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mokrzycki MH, Harris C, May H, Laut J, Palmisano J | title = Lactic acidosis associated with stavudine administration: a report of five cases | journal = Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 198–200 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10619755 | doi = 10.1086/313594 | doi-access = free }}</ref> or [[metformin]] (for diabetes)<ref>{{cite web|title=Metformin and Fatal Lactic Acidosis |url=http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/PUarticles/5.htm |access-date=March 20, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405061605/http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/PUarticles/5.htm |archive-date=April 5, 2013 }}</ref>
* [[Mania]] caused by [[corticosteroid]]s<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Patten SB, Neutel CI | title = Corticosteroid-induced adverse psychiatric effects: incidence, diagnosis and management | journal = Drug Safety | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 111–22 | date = February 2000 | pmid = 10672894 | doi = 10.2165/00002018-200022020-00004 | s2cid = 25933949 }}</ref>
* [[Liver]] damage from [[paracetamol]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Paracetamol Poisoning|url=http://www.patient.info/doctor/paracetamol-poisoning| vauthors = Willacy H |date=January 4, 2013|work=Patient.info|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626233928/http://patient.info/doctor/paracetamol-poisoning|archive-date=June 26, 2015}}</ref>
* [[Melasma]] and [[thrombosis]] associated with use of estrogen-containing [[hormonal contraception]], such as the [[combined oral contraceptive pill]]<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Melasma?|url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-melasma.htm|work=wiseGEEK|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327000855/http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-melasma.htm|archive-date=March 27, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reid R | title = SOGC clinical practice guideline. No. 252, December 2010. Oral contraceptives and the risk of venous thromboembolism: an update | journal = Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada | volume = 32 | issue = 12 | pages = 1192–1197 | date = December 2010 | pmid = 21176332 | doi = 10.1016/S1701-2163(16)34746-6 }}</ref>
* [[Priapism]] associated with the use of [[sildenafil]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wills BK, Albinson C, Wahl M, Clifton J | title = Sildenafil citrate ingestion and prolonged priapism and tachycardia in a pediatric patient | journal = Clinical Toxicology | volume = 45 | issue = 7 | pages = 798–800 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17952749 | doi = 10.1080/15563650701664483 | s2cid = 6629753 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* [[Rhabdomyolysis]] associated with [[statin]]s (anti[[cholesterol]] drugs)<ref>{{cite web|title=How do you know if you have rhabdomyolysis from statin use?|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/rhabdomyolysis/AN01413| vauthors = Behrenbeck T |date=December 14, 2012|work=Mayo Clinic|access-date=March 20, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601011634/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/rhabdomyolysis/AN01413|archive-date=June 1, 2013}}</ref>
* [[Seizure]]s caused by withdrawal from [[benzodiazepine]]s<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fialip J, Aumaitre O, Eschalier A, Maradeix B, Dordain G, Lavarenne J | title = Benzodiazepine withdrawal seizures: analysis of 48 case reports | journal = Clinical Neuropharmacology | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 538–44 | date = December 1987 | pmid = 3427560 | doi = 10.1097/00002826-198712000-00005 }}</ref>
* [[Somnolence|Drowsiness]] or increase in [[appetite]] due to [[Histamine antagonist|antihistamine]] use. Some antihistamines are used in sleep aids explicitly because they cause drowsiness.<ref>{{cite web|title=Antihistamines|url=http://www.patient.info/health/antihistamines|vauthors=Kenny T|date=April 20, 2011|work=Patient.info|access-date=March 20, 2013|archive-date=December 28, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228082621/https://patient.info/allergies-blood-immune/allergies/antihistamines|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Stroke]] or [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] associated with [[sildenafil]] (Viagra), when used with [[nitroglycerin]]
* [[Suicide]], increased tendency associated to the use of [[fluoxetine]] and other [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]] (SSRI) antidepressants
* [[Tardive dyskinesia]] associated with use of [[metoclopramide]] and many [[antipsychotic]] medications<ref>{{cite web|title=Metoclopramide & Tardive Dyskinesia |url=http://www.tardivedyskinesia.com/metoclopramide/ |work=Tardive Dyskinesia Center |access-date=March 20, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323033519/http://tardivedyskinesia.com/metoclopramide/ |archive-date=March 23, 2013 }}</ref>