Editing Assamese language (section)

==Phonology==
The Assamese phonemic inventory consists of eight [[vowel]]s, ten [[diphthongs]], and twenty-three [[consonant]]s (including two [[semivowel]]s).<ref name="iitg">[http://www.iitg.ernet.in/rcilts/assamese.html Assamese] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728094039/http://www.iitg.ernet.in/rcilts/assamese.html |date=28 July 2012 }}, Resource Centre for Indian Language Technology Solutions, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Vowels<ref>{{harvcol|Mahanta|2012|p=220}}</ref>
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}} {{grapheme|i, {{lang|as|ই/ঈ}}}}
|
|{{IPA link|u}} {{grapheme|u, {{lang|as|উ/ঊ}}}}
|-
![[Near-close vowel|Near-close]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|ʊ}} {{grapheme|ü, {{lang|as|ও}}}}
|-
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}} {{grapheme|é, {{lang|as|এʼ}}}}
|
|{{IPA link|o}} {{grapheme|ó, {{lang|as|অʼ}}}}
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ}} {{grapheme|e, {{lang|as|এ}}}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɔ}} {{grapheme|o, {{lang|as|অ}}}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|{{IPA link|ä|a}} {{grapheme|a, {{lang|as|আ}}}}
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Diphthongs<ref name="iitg"/>
!
!{{IPA link|a}}
!{{IPA link|i}}
!{{IPA link|u}}
|-
!{{IPA link|a}}
|
|{{IPA|ai}}
|{{IPA|au}}
|-
!{{IPA link|ɔ}}
|
|{{IPA|ɔi}}
|
|-
!{{IPA link|e}}
|
|{{IPA|ei}}
|{{IPA|eu}}
|-
!{{IPA link|o}}
|
|{{IPA|oi}}
|{{IPA|ou}}
|-
!{{IPA link|i}}
|
|
|{{IPA|iu}}
|-
!{{IPA link|u}}
|{{IPA|ua}}
|{{IPA|ui}}
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Consonants<ref>{{harvcol|Mahanta|2012|p=218}}</ref>
!colspan=2|
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}} {{grapheme|m, {{lang|as|ম}}}}
|{{IPA link|n}} {{grapheme|n, {{lang|as|ন/ণ}}}}
|{{IPA link|ŋ}} {{grapheme|ng, {{lang|as|ঙ/ং}}}}
|
|-
!rowspan=4|[[Stop consonant|Stop]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|{{IPA link|p}} {{grapheme|p, {{lang|as|প}}}}
|{{IPA link|t}} {{grapheme|t, {{lang|as|ত/ট}}}}
|{{IPA link|k}} {{grapheme|k, {{lang|as|ক}}}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPA link|pʰ}} {{grapheme|ph, {{lang|as|ফ}}}}
|{{IPA link|tʰ}} {{grapheme|th, {{lang|as|থ/ঠ}}}}
|{{IPA link|kʰ}} {{grapheme|kh, {{lang|as|খ}}}}
|
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|{{IPA link|b}} {{grapheme|b, {{lang|as|ব}}}}
|{{IPA link|d}} {{grapheme|d, {{lang|as|দ/ড}}}}
|{{IPA link|ɡ}} {{grapheme|g, {{lang|as|গ}}}}
|
|-
!<small>[[breathy voice|murmured]]</small>
|{{IPA link|bʱ}} {{grapheme|bh, {{lang|as|ভ}}}}
|{{IPA link|dʱ}} {{grapheme|dh, {{lang|as|ধ/ঢ}}}}
|{{IPA link|ɡʱ}} {{grapheme|gh, {{lang|as|ঘ}}}}
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Fricative]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|
|{{IPA link|s}} {{grapheme|s, {{lang|as|চ/ছ}}}}
|{{IPA link|x}} {{grapheme|x, {{lang|as|শ/ষ/স}}}}
|{{IPA link|h}} {{grapheme|h, {{lang|as|হ}}}}
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|
|{{IPA link|z}} {{grapheme|j, {{lang|as|জ/য}}}}
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
!<small>central</small>
|{{IPA link|w}} {{grapheme|w, {{lang|as|ৱ}}}}
|{{IPA link|ɹ}} {{grapheme|r, {{lang|as|ৰ/ড়}}}}
|{{IPA link|j}} {{grapheme|y, {{lang|as|য়/্য (য)}}}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|l}} {{grapheme|l, {{lang|as|ল}}}}
|
|
|}

=== Consonant clusters ===
{{Main|Assamese consonant clusters}}

===Alveolar stops===
The Assamese [[phoneme]] inventory is unique in the group of [[Indo-Aryan languages]] as it lacks a dental-retroflex distinction among the [[Coronal consonant|coronal]] stops as well as the lack of postalveolar affricates and fricatives.<ref>"Assamese, alone among NIA languages except for [[Romani language|Romany]], has also lost the characteristic IA dental/retroflex contrast (although it is retained in spelling), reducing the number of articulations, with the loss also of {{IPA|/c/}}, to three." {{harv|Masica|1993|p=95}}</ref> Historically, the [[Dental consonant|dental]] and [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] series merged into [[Alveolar plosive|alveolar stops]]. This makes Assamese resemble non-Indic languages of [[Northeast India]] (such as [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Sino-Tibetan languages]]).{{Sfn|Moral|1997|p=45}} The only other language to have fronted retroflex stops into alveolars is the closely related group of eastern [[dialects]] of [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (although a contrast with dental stops remains in those dialects). {{IPAslink|r}} is normally realised as {{IPAblink|ɹ}} or {{IPAblink|ɻ}}.

===Voiceless velar fricative===
Assamese is unusual among Eastern Indo-Aryan languages for the presence of {{IPA|/x/}} (realised as {{IPAblink|x}} or {{IPAblink|χ}}, depending on the speaker and speech register), due historically to the MIA sibilants' [[lenition]] to {{IPA|/x/}} (initially) and {{IPA|/h/}} (non-initially).<ref>The word "hare", for example: ''śaśka'' (OIA) > ''χɔhā'' (hare). {{harv|Masica|1993|p=206}}</ref> The use of the voiceless velar fricative is heavy in the eastern Assamese dialects and decreases progressively to the west—from [[Kamrupi dialects|Kamrupi]]<ref>Goswami, Upendranath (1970), ''A Study on Kamrupi'', p.xiii {{IPA|/x/}} does not occur finally in Kamrupi. But in St. Coll. it occurs. In non-initial positions O.I.A sibilants became {{IPA|/kʰ/}} and also {{IPA|/h/}} whereas in St. Coll. they become {{IPA|/x/}}.</ref> to eastern [[Goalpariya dialects|Goalparia]], and disappears completely in western Goalpariya.<ref>B Datta (1982), ''Linguistic situation in north-east India'', the distinctive h sound of Assamese is absent in the West Goalpariya dialect</ref><ref>Whereas most fricatives become sibilants in Eastern Goalpariya (''sukh'', ''santi'', ''asa'' in Eastern Goalpariya; ''xukh'', ''xanti'', ''axa'' in western Kamrupi) {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=286}}; some use of the fricative is seen as in the word ''xi'' (for both "he" and "she") {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=287}} and ''xap khar'' (the snake) {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=288}}. The {{IPAslink|x}} is completely absent in Western Goalpariya {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=290}}</ref> The change of {{IPA|/s/}} to {{IPA|/h/}} and then to {{IPA|/x/}} has been attributed to Tibeto-Burman influence by [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji|Suniti Kumar Chatterjee]].<ref>Chatterjee, Suniti Kumar, ''Kirata Jana Krti'', p. 54.</ref>

In some cases, {{IPA|/kʰ/}} can even merge with {{IPA|/χ/}} or {{IPA|/x/}} (''akhɔr'' → ''axɔr'' "a letter (of an alphabet)").{{sfn|Mahanta|2012|p=219}}

===Velar nasal===
Assamese, [[Odia language|Odia]], and [[Bengali language|Bengali]], in contrast to other [[Indo-Aryan languages]], use the [[velar nasal]] (the [[English language|English]] ''ng'' in ''sing'') extensively. While in many languages, the velar nasal is commonly restricted to preceding [[Velar consonant|velar]] sounds, in Assamese it can occur intervocalically.<ref name="iitg"/> This is another feature it shares with other languages of [[Northeast India]], though in Assamese the velar nasal never occurs word-initially.{{Sfn|Moral|1997|p=46}}

===Vowel inventory===
[[Eastern Indic languages]] like Assamese, Bengali, [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], and Odia do not have a vowel length distinction, but have a wide set of [[Roundedness|back rounded vowels]]. In the case of Assamese, there are four back rounded vowels that contrast phonemically, as demonstrated by the minimal set: {{Lang|as|কলা}} ''kola'' {{IPA|[kɔla]}} ('deaf'), {{Lang|as|ক'লা}} ''kóla'' {{IPA|[kola]}} ('black'), {{Lang|as|কোলা}} ''kwla'' {{IPA|[kʊla]}} ('lap'), and {{Lang|as|কুলা}} ''kula'' {{IPA|[kula]}} ('winnowing fan'). The [[near-close near-back rounded vowel]] {{IPA|/ʊ/}} is unique in this branch of the language family. But in lower Assam, ও is pronounced the same as অ' (ó): compare {{Lang|as|কোলা}} ''kwla'' {{IPA|[kóla]}} and {{Lang|as|মোৰ}} ''mwr'' {{IPA|[mór]}}.

===Vowel harmony===
Assamese has [[vowel harmony]]. The vowels [i] and [u] cause the preceding mid vowels and the high back vowels to change to [e] and [o] and [u] respectively. Assamese is one of the few languages spoken in India which exhibit a systematic process of vowel harmony.<ref>{{Cite thesis|url=https://www.lotpublications.nl/directionality-and-locality-in-vowel-harmony-directionality-and-locality-in-vowel-harmony-with-special-reference-to-vowel-harmony-in-assamese|title=Directionality and locality in vowel harmony: With special reference to vowel harmony in Assamese|via=www.lotpublications.nl}}</ref><ref>{{harvcol|Mahanta|2012|p=221}}</ref>

===Schwa deletion===
The inherent vowel in standard Assamese, /{{IPA|ɔ}}/, follows deletion rules analogous to "[[schwa deletion in Indian languages|schwa deletion]]" in other Indian languages. Assamese follows a slightly different set of "schwa deletion" rules for its modern standard and early varieties. In the modern standard /{{IPA|ɔ}}/ is generally deleted in the final position unless it is (1) /w/ ({{lang|as|ৱ}}); or (2) /j/ ({{lang|as|য়}}) after higher vowels like /i/ ({{lang|as|ই}}) or /u/ ({{lang|as|উ}});<ref>{{harvcol|Sarma|2017|p=119}}</ref> though there are a few additional exceptions. The rule for deleting the final /{{IPA|ɔ}}/ was not followed in [[Early Assamese]].

The initial /{{IPA|ɔ}}/ is never deleted.