Editing Cherokee language (section)

== Phonology ==
[[File:Wikitongues Jerry speaking Cherokee.mp3|thumb|right|Recording of a native Cherokee speaker from the Eastern Band]]
[[File:Cherokeestompdance.ogg|thumb|right|Recording of a Cherokee language stomp dance ceremony in Oklahoma]]
The family of [[Iroquoian languages]] has a unique phonological inventory. Unlike most languages, the Cherokee inventory of consonants lacks the labial sounds {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/b/}}. It also lacks {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/v/}}. Cherokee does, however, have one [[labial consonant]], {{IPA|/m/}}, but it is rare, appearing in no more than ten native words.{{sfn|King|1975|pp=16, 21}} In fact, the Lower dialect does not produce {{IPA|/m/}} at all. Instead, it uses {{IPA|/w/}}.

In the case of {{IPA|/p/}}, {{angbr|qw}} {{IPA|/kʷ/}} is often substituted, as in the name of the [[:chr:|Cherokee Wikipedia]], {{lang|chr-Latn|Wigi'''qw'''ediya}}. Some words may contain sounds not reflected in the given phonology: for instance, the modern Oklahoma use of the loanword "automobile", with the {{IPA|/ɔ/}} and {{IPA|/b/}} sounds of English.

=== Consonants ===
As with many Iroquoian languages, Cherokee's phonemic inventory is small. The consonants for North Carolina Cherokee are given in the table below. The consonants of all Iroquoian languages pattern so that they may be grouped as (oral) obstruents, sibilants, laryngeals, and resonants.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Lounsbury |first=Floyd G. |date=1978 |editor-last=Trigger |editor-first=Bruce G. |title=Iroquoian Languages |journal=[[Handbook of North American Indians]] |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |volume=15 |pages=334–343 |oclc=12682465}}</ref>{{Rp|page=337}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ North Carolina Cherokee consonants
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! <small>plain</small>
! [[Lateral consonant|<small>lateral</small>]]
! <small>plain</small>
! <small>[[Labialization|labial]]</small>
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
|
| {{IPAlink|t}}
|
|
| {{IPAlink|k}}
| {{IPAlink|kʷ}}
| {{IPAlink|ʔ}}
|-
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
|
| {{IPAlink|t͡s}}
| {{IPAlink|t͡ɬ}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|
| {{IPAlink|s}}
|
|
|
|
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|-
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
|
| {{IPAlink|l}}
| {{IPAlink|j}}
| {{IPAlink|ɰ}}
|
|
|}

==== Notes ====
* The stops {{IPA|/t, k, kʷ/}} and affricates {{IPA|/t͡s, t͡ɬ/}} are voiced in the beginning of syllables and between vowels: {{IPA|[d, ɡ, ɡʷ, d͡z, d͡ɮ]}}. Before {{IPA|/h/}}, they surface as aspirated stops: {{IPA|[tʰ, kʰ, kʷʰ, t͡sʰ]}}, except {{IPA|/t͡ɬ/}} which surfaces as a plain voiceless affricate {{IPA|[t͡ɬ]}} or fricative {{IPA|[ɬ]}} in some Oklahoma Cherokee speakers.{{sfn|Uchihara|2016|p=41}}{{sfn|Montgomery-Anderson|2008a|pp=39, 64}} These aspirated allophones are felt as separate phonemes by native speakers and are often reflected as such in the orthographies (in romanization or syllabary).
* {{IPA|/t͡s/}} is palatalized as {{IPA|[t͡ɕ ⁓ t͡ʃ]}} (voiced allophones: {{IPA|[d͡ʑ ⁓ d͡ʒ]}}) in the Oklahoma dialects,{{sfn|Uchihara|2016|pp=40–41}} but {{IPA|[t͡s]}} before {{IPA|/h/}} + obstruent after vowel deletion:{{sfn|Scancarelli|1987|p=25}} {{lang|chr-Latn|jⱥ-hdlv́vga}} becomes {{lang|chr-Latn|tsdlv́vga}} {{gloss|you are sick}}.{{sfn|Montgomery-Anderson|2008a|p=65}}
* {{IPA|/t͡ɬ/}} has merged with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} in most North Carolina dialects.{{sfn|Uchihara|2016|p=41}}
* {{IPA|[ɡ]}} (the voiced allophone of {{IPA|/k/}}) can also be lenited to {{IPA|[ɣ]}}, and {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} (the voiced allophone of {{IPA|/kʷ/}}) to {{IPA|[ɣʷ ⁓ w]}}.{{sfn|Uchihara|2016|p=39}}{{sfn|Scancarelli|1987|p=26}}
* The sonorants {{IPA|/n, l, j, ɰ/}} are devoiced when preceding or following {{IPA|/h/}}, with varying degrees of allophony: {{IPA|[n̥, l̥⁓ɬ, j̥⁓ç, w̥⁓ʍ⁓ɸ]}}.{{sfn|Uchihara|2016|p=42}}
* {{IPA|/m/}} is the only true labial. It occurs only in a dozen native words{{sfn|Uchihara|2016|p=43}} and is not reconstructed for [[Proto-Iroquoian language|Proto-Iroquoian]].{{sfn|Charles|2010|pp=21, 82}}
* {{IPA|/s/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ʃ]}} or even {{IPA|[ʂ]}} in North Carolina dialects. After a short vowel, {{IPA|/s/}} is always preceded by a faint {{IPA|/h/}}, generally not spelled in the romanized orthographies.{{sfn|Uchihara|2016|p=42}}{{sfn|Montgomery-Anderson|2008a|p=36}}{{sfn|Scancarelli|1987|p=25}}
* {{IPA|/ʔ/}} and {{IPA|/h/}}, including the pre-aspiration {{IPA|/h/}} mentioned above, participate in complex rules of laryngeal and tonal alternations, often surfacing as various tones instead. Ex: {{lang|chr-Latn|h-v'''h'''d-a}} > {{lang|chr-Latn|hv'''h'''da}} "use it!" but {{lang|chr-Latn|g-v'''h'''d-íha}} >  {{lang|chr-Latn|g'''vv̀'''díha}} "I am using it" with a low falling tone;{{sfn|Uchihara|2016|p=43}} {{lang|chr-Latn|wi-hi-ga'''h'''t-i}} > {{lang|chr-Latn|hwi'''k'''ti}} "you're heading there" but {{lang|chr-Latn|wi-ji-ga'''h'''t-i}} >  {{lang|chr-Latn|wijig'''áa'''ti}} "I am heading there" with a falling tone.

==== Orthography ====
There are two main competing orthographies, depending on how plain and aspirated stops (including affricates) are represented:{{sfn|Uchihara|2016|p=11}}{{sfn|Montgomery-Anderson|2008a|pp=33, 64}}{{sfn|Scancarelli|2005|pp=359-362}}
* In the ''d/t system'', plain stops are represented by English voiced stops (''d, g, gw, j, dl'') and aspirated stops by English voiceless stops (''t, k, kw, c, tl''). This orthography is favored by native speakers.
* In the ''t/th system'', plain stops are represented by voiceless stops instead, and aspirated stops by sequences of voiceless stops + ''h'' (''th, kh, khw/kwh, ch, thl/tlh''). This orthography is favored by linguists.

Another orthography, used in Holmes (1977), doesn't distinguish plain stops from aspirated stops for {{IPA|/t͡sa/}} and {{IPA|/kw/}} and uses ''ts'' and ''qu'' for both modes.{{sfn|Scancarelli|1987|p=30}} Spellings working from the syllabary rather than from the sounds often behave similarly, {{IPA|/t͡s/}} and {{IPA|/kʷ/}} being the only two stop series not having separate letters for plain and aspirated before any vowel in Sequoyah script. Ex: {{lang|chr|ᏌᏊ}} {{transliteration|chr|saquu}} {{IPA|chr|saàɡʷu|}}, {{lang|chr|ᏆᎾ}} {{transliteration|chr|quana}} {{IPA|chr|kʷʰana|}}.

=== Vowels ===
There are six short vowels and six long vowels in the Cherokee inventory.{{sfn|Feeling|1975|p=ix}} As with all Iroquoian languages, this includes a nasalized vowel.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=337}} In the case of Cherokee, the nasalized vowel is a mid central vowel usually represented as ''v'' and is pronounced {{IPA|[ə̃]}}, that is as a [[schwa]] vowel like the unstressed "a" in the English word "comma" plus the nasalization. It is similar to the nasalized vowel in the French word ''un'' which means "one".

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Cherokee vowels
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|iː}}
|
| {{IPA link|u}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|eː}}
| {{IPA link|ə̃}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|ə̃ː}}
| {{IPA link|o}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|oː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|a}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|aː}}
|
|}

{{IPA|/u/}} is weakly rounded and often realized as {{IPA|[ɯ ⁓ ʉ]}}.

Word-final vowels are short and nasalized, and receive an automatic high or high-falling tone: {{lang|chr-Latn|wado}} {{IPA|chr|wadṍ|}} 'thank you'.{{sfn|Montgomery-Anderson|2008a|p=45}} They are often dropped in casual speech: {{lang|chr-Latn|gaáda}} {{IPA|chr|ɡaátʰ|}} 'dirt'.{{sfn|Uchihara|2016|p=49}} When deletion happens, trailing {{IPA|/ʔ/}} and {{IPA|/h/}} are also deleted and any resulting long vowel is further shortened:{{sfn|Montgomery-Anderson|2008a|p=78}} {{lang|chr-Latn|uùgoohvv́ʔi}} becomes {{lang|chr-Latn|uùgoohv́}} 'he saw it'.

Short vowels are devoiced before {{IPA|/h/}}: {{lang|chr-Latn|digadóhdi}} {{IPA|chr|diɡadó̥hdĩ́|}}.{{sfn|Montgomery-Anderson|2008a|p=45}} But due to the phonological rules of [[#Vowel deletion|vowel deletion]], [[#H-metathesis|laryngeal metathesis]] and [[#Laryngeal alternation|laryngeal alternation]] (see below), this environment is relatively rare.

Sequences of two non-identical vowels are disallowed and the vowel clash must be resolved. There are four strategies depending on the phonological and morphological environments:{{sfn|Uchihara|2013|pp=127-130}}
# the first vowel is kept: {{lang|chr-Latn|uù-aduulíha}} becomes {{lang|chr-Latn|uùduulíha}} 'he wants',
# the second vowel is kept: {{lang|chr-Latn|hi-ééga}} becomes {{lang|chr-Latn|hééga}} 'you're going',
# an [[epenthetic]] consonant is inserted: {{lang|chr-Latn|jii-uudalééʔa}} becomes {{lang|chr-Latn|jiiyuudalééʔa}},
# they merge into a different vowel or tone quality.

These make the identification of each individual morpheme often a difficult task:

{{interlinear|indent=4|abbreviations=3B:Set B third person
|top= '''dúu'''daanv́vneelvv́ʔi
|d'''ee-''' '''ii-''' '''uu-''' '''a'''daa(d)- nv́vneel -vv́ʔi
|DIST- ITER- 3B- REFL- give:PFV -EXP
|"he gave them right back to him"}}

{{interlinear|indent=4|abbreviations=1A:Set A first person
|top= d'''éena'''suúléésgo
|d'''ee-''' '''iinii-''' '''a'''suúléésg -o
|DIST- 1A.DU- wash.hands:IPFV -HAB
|"you and I always wash our hands"}}

=== Tone ===
Cherokee distinguishes six pitch patterns or [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]], using four pitch levels. Two tones are level (low, high) and appear on short or long vowels. The other four are [[contour tone]]s (rising, falling, lowfall, highrise) and appear on long vowels only.{{sfn|Montgomery-Anderson|2008a|p=51}}

There is no academic consensus on the notation of tone and length, although in 2011 a project began to document the use of tones in Cherokee to improve language instruction.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunlap |first=Mary Jane |date=2011-11-01 |title=Language specialists racing with time to revitalize Cherokee language |url=https://today.ku.edu/2011/11/01/language-specialists-racing-time-revitalize-cherokee-language |access-date=2023-01-28 |publisher=The University of Kansas |language=en}}</ref> Below are the main conventions, along with the standardized [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] notation.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
! Vowel length
! Tone
! IPA
! Pulte & Feeling<br />(1975)
! Scancarelli<br />(1986)
! Montgomery-Anderson<br />(2008, 2015)
! Feeling (2003),<br />Uchihara (2016)
|-
|rowspan="2"|Short
| Low
| {{IPA|˨}}
|ạ²
|à
|a
|a
|-
| High
| {{IPA|˧}}
|ạ³
|á
|á
|á
|-
|rowspan="6"|Long
| Low
| {{IPA|˨}}
|a²
|à:
|aa
|aa
|-
| High
| {{IPA|˧}}
|a³
|á:
|áa
|áá
|-
| Rising
| {{IPA|˨˧}}
|a²³
|ǎ:
|aá
|aá
|-
| Falling
| {{IPA|˧˨}}
|a³²
|â:
|áà
|áà
|-
| Lowfall
| {{IPA|˨˩}}
|a¹ (= a²¹)
|ȁ:
|aà
|àà, àa
|-
| Superhigh
| {{IPA|˧˦}}
|a⁴ (= a³⁴)
|a̋:
|áá
|aa̋
|}

* The ''low tone'' is the default, unmarked tone.
* The ''high tone'' is the marked tone. Some sources of high tone apply to the [[Mora (linguistics)|mora]], others to the syllable. Complex [[morphophonological]] rules govern whether it can spread one mora to the left, to the right or at all. It has both lexical and morphological functions.
* The ''rising and falling tones'' are secondary tones, i.e. combinations of low and high tones, deriving from moraic high tones and from high tone spread.
* The ''lowfall tone'' mainly derives from glottal stop deletion after a long vowel, but also has important morphological functions ([[#Pronominal lowering|pronominal lowering]], [[#Tonicity|tonic/atonic alternation]], [[#Laryngeal alternation|laryngeal alternation]]).
* The ''superhigh tone'', also called ''highfall'' by Montgomery-Anderson, has a distinctive [[morphosyntactical]] function, primarily appearing on adjectives, nouns derived from verbs, and on subordinate verbs. It is mobile and falls on the rightmost long vowel. If the final short vowel is dropped and the superhigh tone becomes in word-final position, it is shortened and pronounced like a slightly higher final tone (notated as ''a̋'' in most orthographies). There can only be one superhigh tone per word, constraint not shared by the other tones. For these reasons, this contour exhibits some accentual properties and has been referred to as an [[Stress (linguistics)|accent]] (or stress) in the literature.{{sfn|Uchihara|2016|p=95}}

While the tonal system is undergoing a gradual simplification in many areas, it remains important in meaning and is still held strongly by many, especially older, speakers. The syllabary displays neither tone nor vowel length, but as stated earlier regarding the paucity of minimal pairs, real cases of ambiguity are rare. The same goes for transliterated Cherokee ({{lang|chr-Latn|osiyo}} for {{IPA|chr|oosíjo|}}, {{lang|chr-Latn|dohitsu}} for {{IPA|chr|doòhiı̋dʒu|}}, etc.), which is rarely written with any tone markers, except in dictionaries. Native speakers can tell the difference between written words based solely on context.