Editing Chinese space program (section)

==Chinese space program and the international community==

=== Belt and Road Initiative ===
One of China's priorities in its [[Belt and Road Initiative]] is to improve satellite information pathways.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last1=Shinn |first1=David H. |title=China's Relations with Africa: a New Era of Strategic Engagement |last2=Eisenman |first2=Joshua |date=2023 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-21001-0 |location=New York |author-link=David H. Shinn}}</ref>{{Rp|page=300}}

=== Bilateral space cooperation ===
[[File:CBERS-4 010.jpg|thumb|alt=CBERS-4 satellite of the China–Brazil Earth Resources Satellite program|[[CBERS-4]] satellite of the [[China–Brazil Earth Resources Satellite program]]]]
China is an attractive partner for space cooperation for other developing countries because it launches their satellites at a reduced cost and often provides financing in the form of policy loans.<ref name=":32" />{{Rp|page=301}}

With respect to the African countries, the 2022-2024 action plan for the [[Forum on China–Africa Cooperation|Forum on China-Africa Cooperation]] commits China to using space technology to enhance cooperation with African countries and to create centers for Africa-China cooperation on satellite remote sensing application.<ref name=":32" />{{Rp|page=300}} African countries are increasingly cooperating with China on satellite launches and specialized training.<ref name=":32" />{{Rp|page=301}} As of 2022, China has launched two satellites for Ethiopia, two for Nigeria, one for Algeria, one for Sudan, and one for Egypt.<ref name=":32" />{{Rp|pages=301–302}}

[[China–Namibia relations|China and Namibia]] jointly operate the China Telemetry, Tracking, and Command Station which was established in 2001 in [[Swakopmund]], Namibia.<ref name=":32" />{{Rp|page=304}} This station tracks Chinese satellites and space missions.<ref name=":32" />{{Rp|page=304}}

[[Brazil–China relations|China and Brazil]] have successfully cooperated in the field of space.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Joanna I. |title=Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector |date=2023 |publisher=The [[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-54482-5 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>{{Rp|page=202}} Among the most successful space cooperation projects were the development and launch of earth monitoring satellites.<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|page=202}} As of 2023, the two countries have jointly developed six [[China–Brazil Earth Resources Satellite program|China-Brazil Earth Resource Satellites]].<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|page=202}} These projects have helped both Brazil and China develop their access to satellite imagery and promoted remote sending research.<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|page=202}} Brazil and China's cooperation is a unique example of [[South–South cooperation|South-South cooperation]] between two developing countries in the field of space.<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|page=202}}

===Dual-use technologies and outer space===
The PRC is a member of the [[United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space]] and a signatory to all [[United Nations]] treaties and conventions on space, with the exception of the 1979 [[Moon Treaty]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2014|url=http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/limited/c2/AC105_C2_2014_CRP07E.pdf|publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs|access-date=26 March 2015}}</ref> The United States government has long been resistant to the use of PRC launch services by American industry due to concerns over alleged civilian technology transfer that could have dual-use military applications to countries such as [[North Korea]], [[Iran]] or [[Syria]]. Thus, financial retaliatory measures have been taken on many occasions against several Chinese space companies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2007-01-09/162311991178.shtml|title=中方反对美以出售禁运武器为由制裁中国公司|publisher=新浪|date=2007-01-09|access-date=August 21, 2008}}</ref>

=== NASA's policy excluding Chinese state affiliates ===
{{Further|Wolf Amendment}}
The [[Cox Report]], released in 1999, alleged that following decades of intelligence operations against U.S. weapons laboratories conducted by the [[Ministry of State Security of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of State Security]], [[Chinese espionage in the United States|China stole]] design information regarding advanced [[thermonuclear weapon]]s. In 2011, Congress passed a law prohibiting [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] researchers from working with [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] citizens affiliated with a Chinese state enterprise or entity without FBI certification or using NASA funds to host Chinese visitors.<ref name="justice1">{{citation|first1=Virginia |last1=Seitz |title=Memorandum Opinion for the General Counsel, Office of Science and Technology Policy |url=https://www.justice.gov/olc/2011/conduct-diplomacy.pdf |journal=Office of Legal Counsel |volume=35 |date=11 September 2011 |access-date=23 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713080223/http://www.justice.gov/olc/2011/conduct-diplomacy.pdf |archive-date=13 July 2012 }}</ref> In March 2013, the U.S. Congress passed legislation barring Chinese nationals from entering NASA facilities without a waiver from NASA.<ref name="guardiannasa">{{cite news|last=Ian Sample|title=US scientists boycott Nasa conference over China ban|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/05/us-scientists-boycott-nasa-china-ban|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=5 October 2013|date=2013-10-05}}</ref>

The history of the U.S. exclusion policy can be traced back to the [[Cox Report]]'s allegations that the technical information that American companies provided China for its commercial satellite ended up improving Chinese intercontinental ballistic missile technology.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/a23402/will-nasa-ever-work-with-china/|title=Will NASA Ever Work With China?|last1=Oberhaus|first1=Daniel|date=October 18, 2016|website=Popular Mechanic|access-date=July 31, 2018}}</ref> This was further aggravated in 2007 when China blew up a defunct meteorological satellite in [[low Earth orbit]] to test a ground-based [[Anti-satellite weapon|anti-satellite (ASAT) missile]]. The debris created by the explosion contributed to the [[Space debris|space junk]] that litter Earth's orbit, exposing other nations' space assets to the risk of accidental collision.<ref name=":3" /> The United States also fears the Chinese application of dual-use space technology for nefarious purposes.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=The Ashgate Research Companion to Chinese Foreign Policy|last1=Kavalski|first1=Emilian|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=9781409422709|location=Oxon|pages=404}}</ref>

The Chinese response to the exclusion policy involved its own space policy of opening up its space station to the outside world, welcoming scientists coming from all countries.<ref name=":4" /> American scientists have also boycotted NASA conferences due to its rejection of Chinese nationals in these events.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/05/us-scientists-boycott-nasa-china-ban|title=US scientists boycott Nasa conference over China ban|last1=Sample|first1=Ian|date=2013-10-05|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-07-31}}</ref>