Editing Economic sanctions (section)

==Examples==
[[File:GASOLINE SHORTAGE HIT THE STATE OF OREGON IN THE FALL OF 1973 BY MIDDAY GASOLINE WAS BECOMING UNAVAILABLE ALONG... - NARA - 555405.jpg|thumb|An undersupplied US gasoline station, closed during the oil embargo in 1973]]

===United States sanctions===
{{Main|United States sanctions}}

====US Embargo Act of 1807====
{{Main|Embargo Act of 1807}}
The United States [[Embargo of 1807]] involved a series of laws passed by the [[United States Congress|US Congress]] (1806–1808) during the second term of President [[Thomas Jefferson]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=2986 | title = The Embargo of 1807 | author = University of Houston | publisher = digitalhistory.uh.edu | year = 2013 | author-link = University of Houston }}</ref> [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and [[First French Empire|France]] were engaged in the [[War of the Fourth Coalition]]; the US wanted to remain [[Neutral country|neutral]] and to trade with both sides, but both countries objected to American trade with the other.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www2.gcc.edu/dept/econ/ASSC/Papers2005/Embargo1807_Snyder.pdf | title= The Embargo of 1807 |location=Pennsylvania | publisher= [[Grove City College]] | author1= Aaron Snyder | author2= Jeffrey Herbener | website= gcc.edu | date= December 15, 2004 | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130517115213/http://www2.gcc.edu/dept/econ/ASSC/Papers2005/Embargo1807_Snyder.pdf | archive-date= 2013-05-17 }}</ref> American policy aimed to use the new laws to avoid war and to force both France and Britain to respect American rights.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/embargo-1807 | title = Embargo of 1807 | publisher = monticello.org | date = April 8, 2013}}</ref> The embargo failed to achieve its aims, and Jefferson repealed the legislation in March 1809.

====US embargo of Cuba====
{{Main|United States embargo against Cuba}}
The United States embargo against Cuba began on March 14, 1958, during the overthrow of dictator [[Fulgencio Batista]] by [[Fidel Castro]] during the [[Cuban Revolution]]. At first, the embargo applied only to arms sales; however, it later expanded to include other imports, eventually extending to almost all trade on February 7, 1962.<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/proclamations/03447.html | title = Proclamation 3447 – Embargo on all trade with Cuba | author = National Archives and Records Administration | date = 15 August 2016 | publisher = archives.gov | author-link = National Archives and Records Administration }}</ref> Referred to by Cuba as ''"el bloqueo"'' (the blockade),<ref>{{cite news | url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/cuba-trade-embargo-turns-50-still-no-rum-or-cigars-though-some-freedom-in-travel/2012/02/07/gIQAKaYfwQ_blog.html | title = Cuba trade embargo turns 50: Still no rum or cigars, though some freedom in travel | author = Elizabeth Flock | newspaper = washingtonpost.com | date = February 7, 2012}}</ref> the US embargo on Cuba remains {{as of|2022|lc=on}} one of the longest-standing embargoes in modern history.<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15634914 | title = Officially Sanctioned: A Guide to the U.S. Blacklist | author = Eric Weiner | publisher = npr.org | date = October 15, 2007}}</ref> Few of the United States' allies embraced the embargo, and many have argued it has been ineffective in changing Cuban government behavior.<ref>{{cite magazine | url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2013/01/16/its-time-for-the-u-s-to-end-its-senseless-embargo-of-cuba/ | title = It's Time For The U.S. To End Its Senseless Embargo Of Cuba | author1= Daniel Hanson | author2= Dayne Batten | author3= Harrison Ealey | magazine = forbes.com | date = January 16, 2013}}</ref> While taking some steps to allow limited economic exchanges with Cuba, American President [[Barack Obama]] nevertheless reaffirmed the policy in 2011, stating that without the granting of improved human rights and freedoms by Cuba's current government, the embargo remains "in the national interest of the United States".<ref>{{cite magazine | url = http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/09/obama-quietly-renews-us-embargo-cuba/42430/ | title = Obama Quietly Renews U.S. Embargo on Cuba | author = Uri Friedman | magazine = [[The Atlantic]] | date = September 13, 2011 | access-date = August 23, 2017 | archive-date = November 13, 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131113220230/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/09/obama-quietly-renews-us-embargo-cuba/42430/ | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==== Other countries ====
{{Main|United States sanctions against Iran|Humanitarian impacts of U.S. sanctions against Iran}}

=== Russian sanctions ===
[[Russia]] has been known to utilize economic sanctions to achieve its political goals. Russia's focus has been primarily on implementing sanctions against the pro-Western governments of [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet Union states]]. The Kremlin's aim is particularly on states that aspire to join the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]], such as [[Ukraine]], [[Moldova]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=The Kremlin Playbook: Understanding Russian influence in Central and Eastern Europe : a report of the CSIS Europe Program and the CSD Economics Program|last=Conley|first=Heather A.|others=Mina, James, Stefanov, Ruslan, Vladimirov, Martin, [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]] (Washington, D.C.), Center for the Study of Democracy (Bulgaria)|isbn=9781442279582|location=Washington, DC|oclc=969727837|year = 2016}}</ref> Russia has enacted a law, the [[Dima Yakovlev Law]], that defines sanctions against US citizens involved in "violations of the human rights and freedoms of Russian citizens". It lists US citizens who are banned from entering Russia.<ref name="kremlin_law_descr">[http://eng.kremlin.ru/acts/4810 A law on sanctions for individuals violating fundamental human rights and freedoms of Russian citizens has been signed] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102005952/http://eng.kremlin.ru/acts/4810|date=2013-01-02}} // Kremlin.ru, 28 December 2012.</ref>

==== Russia sanctions on Ukraine ====
{{Main|Russian sanctions against Ukraine}}
[[Viktor Yushchenko]], the third president of Ukraine who was elected in 2003, lobbied during his term to gain admission to NATO and the [[Ukraine–European Union relations|EU]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Newnham|first=Randall|date=July 2013|title=Pipeline Politics: Russian Energy Sanctions and the 2010 Ukrainian Elections|journal=[[Journal of Eurasian Studies]]|volume=4|issue=2|pages=115–122|doi=10.1016/j.euras.2013.03.001|doi-access=free}}</ref> Soon after Yushchenko entered office, Russia demanded [[Kyiv]] pay the same rate that it charged [[Western Europe]]an states. This quadrupled Ukraine's energy bill overnight.<ref name=":2" /> Russia subsequently cut off the supply of [[Natural gas in Russia|natural gas]] in 2006, causing significant harm to the [[Economy of Ukraine|Ukrainian]] and [[Economy of Russia|Russian economies]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldpress.org/Europe/3307.cfm|title=Russia-Ukraine 'Gas War' Damages Both Economies|website=www.worldpress.org|language=en|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref> As the Ukrainian economy began to struggle, Yushchenko's approval ratings dropped significantly; reaching the single digits by the [[2010 Ukrainian presidential election|2010 election]]; [[Viktor Yanukovych]], who was more supportive of Moscow won the election in 2010 to become the fourth president of Ukraine. After his election, gas prices were reduced substantially.<ref name=":2" />

==== Russian sanctions on Georgia ====
The [[Rose Revolution]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] brought [[Mikheil Saakashvili]] to power as the third president of the country. Saakashvili wanted to bring Georgia into NATO and the EU and was a strong  supporter of the US-led war in [[Iraq]] and [[Afghanistan]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Newnham|first=Randall E.|title=Georgia on my mind? Russian sanctions and the end of the 'Rose Revolution'|journal=Journal of Eurasian Studies|volume=6|issue=2|pages=161–170|doi=10.1016/j.euras.2015.03.008|year=2015|doi-access=free}}</ref> Russia would soon implement a number of different sanctions on Georgia, including natural gas price raises through [[Gazprom]] and wider trade sanctions that impacted the Georgian economy, particularly Georgian exports of wine, citrus fruits, and mineral water. In 2006, Russia banned all imports from Georgia which was able to deal a significant blow to the [[Economy of Georgia (country)|Georgian economy]].<ref name=":3" /> Russia also expelled nearly 2,300 Georgians who worked within its borders.<ref name=":3"/>

===United Nations sanctions===
The United Nations issues sanctions by consent of the [[United Nations Security Council]] (UNSC) and/or [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] in response to major international events, receiving authority to do so under Article 41 of Chapter VII of the [[United Nations Charter]].<ref name="UN Sanctions">{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=53850#.WfNxURNSyRt|title=UN sanctions: what they are, how they work, and who uses them|last=Section|first=United Nations News Service|date=2016-05-04|website=UN News Service Section|language=en|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref> The nature of these sanctions may vary, and include financial, trade, or weaponry restrictions. Motivations can also vary, ranging from humanitarian and environmental concerns<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37755#.WfNxyxNSyRt|title= New UN project uses financial incentives to try to save the dugong|last=Section|first=United Nations News Service|date=2011-03-14|website=UN News Service Section|language=en|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref> to efforts to halt [[nuclear proliferation]]. Over two dozen sanctions measures have been implemented by the United Nations since its founding in 1945.<ref name ="UN Sanctions"/>

Most UNSC sanctions since the mid-1990s have targeted individuals and entities rather than entire governments, a change from the comprehensive trade sanctions of earlier decades. For example, the UNSC maintains lists of individuals indicted for crimes or linked to international terrorism, which raises novel legal questions regarding [[due process]]. According to a dataset covering the years 1991 to 2013, 95% of UNSC sanction regimes included "sectoral bans" on aviation and/or the import (or export) of arms or raw materials, 75% included "individual/group" sanctions such as [[Asset freezing|asset freezes]] or restrictions on travel, and just 10% targeted national finances or included measures against [[central bank]]s, [[sovereign wealth fund]]s, or foreign investment. The most frequently used UNSC sanction documented in the dataset is an embargo against imported weapons, which applied in 87% of all cases and was directed against non-state actors more often than against governments. Targeted sanctions regimes may contain hundreds of names, a handful, or none at all.<ref name="Giumelli 2015">{{cite journal|last=Giumelli|first=Francesco|title=Understanding United Nations targeted sanctions: an empirical analysis|journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|volume=91|issue=6|date=November 2015|pages=1351–1368|doi=10.1111/1468-2346.12448|url=https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/f97592f6-c863-44ac-b416-822e339f296e}}</ref>

==== Sanctions on Somalia, 1992 ====
{{Main|United Nations arms embargo on Somalia}}
The UN implemented sanctions against Somalia beginning in April 1992, after the overthrow of the [[Siad Barre]] regime in 1991 during the [[Somali Civil War]]. UNSC [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 751|Resolution 751]] forbade members to sell, finance, or transfer any military equipment to Somalia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/751|title=Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 751 (1992) and 1907 (2009) concerning Somalia and Eritrea|website=www.un.org|language=en|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref>

==== Sanctions on North Korea, 2006 ====
{{Main|Sanctions against North Korea}}
The UNSC passed Resolution 1718 in 2006 in response to a nuclear test that the [[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK)]] conducted in violation of the Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. The resolution banned the sale of military and luxury goods and froze government assets.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.nti.org/learn/countries/north-korea/nuclear/ |title= North Korea {{!}} Countries |website= www.nti.org |access-date= 2017-10-27}}</ref> Since then, the UN has passed multiple resolutions subsequently expanding sanctions on North Korea. Resolution 2270 from 2016 placed restrictions on transport personnel and vehicles employed by North Korea while also restricting the sale of natural resources and fuel for aircraft.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sc12267.doc.htm|title=Security Council Imposes Fresh Sanctions on Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2270 (2016) {{!}} Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|website=www.un.org|language=en|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref>

The efficacy of such sanctions has been questioned in light of continued nuclear tests by North Korea in the decade following the 2006 resolution. Professor William Brown of [[Georgetown University]] argued that "sanctions don't have much of an impact on an economy that has been essentially bankrupt for a generation".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/09/09/why-did-sanctions-fail-against-north-korea/|title=Why Did Sanctions Fail Against North Korea?|website=Foreign Policy|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref>

==== Sanctions on Libya ====
On February 26, 2011, the UNSC issued an arms embargo against the Libya through [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973|Security Council Resolution 1970]] in response to humanitarian abuses occurring in the [[Libyan Civil War (2011)|First Libyan Civil War]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sipri.org/databases/embargoes/un_arms_embargoes/libya/libya_2011|title=UN Arms embargo on Libya |website=www.sipri.org|language=en|access-date=2017-12-06}}</ref> The embargo was later extended to mid-2018. Under the embargo, Libya has suffered severe inflation because of increased dependence on the private sector to import goods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://graduateinstitute.ch/files/live/sites/iheid/files/sites/internationalgovernance/shared/PSIG_images/Sanctions/Templates/Libya%2520I%2520Template.doc|title=Evaluating the Impacts and Effectiveness of Targeted Sanctions|website=graduateinstitute.ch|access-date=2017-12-07}}{{dead link|date=February 2024|bot=medic}}</ref> The sanctions caused large cuts to health and education, which caused social conditions to decrease. Even though the sanctions were in response to human rights, their effects were limited.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicefinemergencies.com/downloads/eresource/docs/Sanctions/2011-06-21%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Effects%20of%20Targeted%20Sanctions.docx|title=Literature Review on the Effects of Targeted Sanctions|website=www.unicefinemergencies.com|access-date=2017-12-07|archive-date=2019-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504113351/http://www.unicefinemergencies.com/downloads/eresource/docs/Sanctions/2011-06-21%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Effects%20of%20Targeted%20Sanctions.docx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Sanction on the Central African Republic ===

In 2013 the UN decreed an arms embargo against the CAR. The arms embargo was established in the context of an intercommunity conflict between the Séléka rebels, with a Muslim majority, and the predominantly Christian militias. to fight back. Raised UN Security Council lifts arms embargo on CAR on August 1, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/07/1152656|title=Security Council lifts arms embargo on Central African Republic forces |website=www.news.un.org|date=30 July 2024 |language=en|access-date=2024-08-01}}</ref>

====Sanctions on apartheid South Africa====
{{Main|International sanctions during apartheid}}
In effort to punish [[South Africa]] for its policies of [[apartheid]], the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted a voluntary international oil-embargo against South Africa on November 20, 1987; that embargo had the support of 130 countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://richardknight.homestead.com/files/oilembargo.htm|title=Oil Embargo against Apartheid South Africa on richardknight.com|website=richardknight.homestead.com}}</ref> South Africa, in response, expanded its [[Sasol]] production of [[synthetic crude]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Murphy|first=Caryle|date=1979-04-27|title=To Cope With Embargoes, S. Africa Converts Coal Into Oil|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/04/27/to-cope-with-embargoes-s-africa-converts-coal-into-oil/cd39adab-5084-4e46-a28f-79de2896f75e/|access-date=2020-12-12|issn=0190-8286}}</ref>

All United Nations sanctions on South Africa ended over the [[Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa|Negotiations to end Apartheid]], [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 919|Resolution 919]] and the [[1994 South African election]]s, in which [[Nelson Mandela]] was elected as the first post-Apartheid president.  When asked in 1993 if economic sanctions had helped end apartheid, Mandela replied "Oh, there is no doubt."<ref><!--Jonathan Zimmerman (2013) Nelson Mandela, A True Believer in Sanctions-->{{cite Q|Q121303715}}</ref>

===Other multilateral sanctions===
The United States, [[Great Britain|Britain]], the [[Republic of China (1912-49)|Republic of China]] and the [[Netherlands]] imposed [[sanctions against Japan]] in 1940–1941 in response to its [[expansionism]]. Deprived of access to vital oil, iron-ore and steel supplies, Japan started planning for military action to [[Dutch East Indies campaign|seize the resource-rich Dutch East Indies]], which required a preemptive [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], triggering the American entry into the [[Pacific War]].<ref>
{{cite web|url= http://history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/pearlhbr/pearlhbr.htm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20001206155000/http://history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/pearlhbr/pearlhbr.htm|url-status= dead|archive-date= 6 December 2000|title= Pearl Harbor Raid, 7 December 1941|date= 3 December 2000|publisher= Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center|access-date= 20 July 2019|location= Washington|quote= The 7 December 1941 Japanese raid on Pearl Harbor was one of the great defining moments in history. A single carefully-planned and well-executed stroke removed the United States Navy's battleship force as a possible threat to the Japanese Empire's southward expansion. [...] The Japanese military, deeply engaged in the seemingly endless war it had started against China in mid-1937, badly needed oil and other raw materials. Commercial access to these was gradually curtailed as the conquests continued. In July 1941 the Western powers effectively halted trade with Japan. From then on, as the desperate Japanese schemed to seize the oil and mineral-rich East Indies and Southeast Asia, a Pacific war was virtually inevitable.}}</ref>

In 1973–1974, [[OAPEC]] instigated the [[1973 oil crisis]] through its [[oil embargo]] against the United States and other industrialized nations that supported [[Israel]] in the [[Yom Kippur War]]. The results included a sharp rise in [[Price of oil|oil prices]] and in [[OPEC]] revenues, an emergency period of [[energy rationing]], a [[1973–75 recession|global economic recession]], large-scale [[Energy conservation|conservation]] efforts, and long-lasting shifts toward [[natural gas]], [[ethanol fuel|ethanol]], [[nuclear power|nuclear]] and other [[alternative energy]] sources.<ref>{{cite book | first= Leonardo | last= Maugeri | title= The Age of Oil | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JWmx5uKA6gIC | date= 2006 | publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group | pages= 112–116 |isbn= 9780275990084 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.history.com/topics/energy-crisis | title= Energy Crisis (1970s) | publisher= [[The History Channel]] | date= 2010}}</ref> Israel continued to receive Western support, however.

In 2010, the [[European Union]] made the decision to [[Sanctions against Iran|sanction]] [[Iran]] due to their involvement in their [[Nuclear program of Iran|nuclear program]].<ref name="loc.gov">{{Cite web |title=European Union: Renewed Sanctions Against Iran |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2010-08-09/european-union-renewed-sanctions-against-iran/ |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. }}</ref> Theresa Papademetriou states the exact restrictions the EU posed on Iran, "prohibition on the provision of insurance, increased restrictions on and notifications needed for transfers of [[Funding|funds]] to and from Iran, restrictions on the supply of or traffic in technology and equipment to be used in certain [[oil]] and gas fields and prohibition of [[investment]] in such fields, expansion of the list of goods and technology whose supply to Iran is either subject to prior authorization or is completely banned and new [[Visa policy|visa]] restrictions.” <ref name="loc.gov"/> Also in 2010, the UN Council imposed sanctions on Iran due to their involvement in their nuclear program.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last=Sen |first=Ashish |date=2018-05-08 |title=A Brief History of Sanctions on Iran |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/a-brief-history-of-sanctions-on-iran/ |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}}</ref> These sanctions banned Iran from carrying out tests on their nuclear weapons and imposed an embargo on the transfer of weapons into the country.<ref name="auto"/> These sanctions resulted in drastic macroeconomic downturns for the Iranian economy including volatility in [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], increase in [[unemployment]], and increase in [[inflation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sashi |first1=Sivramkrishna |last2=Bhavish |first2=Sharma |date=2019-12-01 |title=Macroeconomic Implications of US Sanctions on Iran: A Sectoral Financial Balances Analysis |journal=Studies in Business and Economics |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=182–204 |doi=10.2478/sbe-2019-0053 |issn=2344-5416|doi-access=free }}</ref>