Editing Expectancy theory (section)

===Models of teacher expectancy effects===
[[Jere Brophy]] and Thomas Good<ref>{{cite book|first1=Jere |last1=Brophy |first2=Thomas |last2=Good |year=1974 |title=Teacher-Student Relationships: Causes and Consequences |location=New York |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Jere |last1=Brophy |first2=Thomas |last2=Good |year=1987 |title=Looking in classrooms |edition=4th |location=New York |publisher=Harper and Row}}</ref> provided a comprehensive model of how [[teacher]] expectations could influence children's achievement. Their model posits that teachers' expectations indirectly affect children's achievement: "teacher expectations could also affect student outcomes indirectly by leading to differential teacher treatment of students that would condition student attitudes, expectations, and behavior".<ref name="Brophy 1983">{{cite journal | last=Brophy | first=Jere E. | title=Research on the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations. | journal=Journal of Educational Psychology | publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) | volume=75 | issue=5 | year=1983 | issn=0022-0663 | doi=10.1037/0022-0663.75.5.631 | pages=631–661}}</ref>{{rp|639}} The model includes the following sequence. Teachers form differential expectations for students early in the school year. Based on these expectations, they behave differently toward different students, and as a result of these behaviors the students begin to understand what the teacher expects from them. If students accept the teachers' expectations and behavior toward them then they will be more likely to act in ways that confirm the teacher's initial expectations. This process will ultimately affect student achievement so that teachers' initial expectancies are confirmed.<ref name="Schunk, Dale H. 2012. pp. 96-97">{{cite book |last1=Schunk |first1=Dale H. |last2=Meece |first2=Judith L. |title=Student Perceptions in the Classroom |location=Mahwah |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |pages=96–97}}</ref>

In discussing work related to this model, Brophy made several important observations about teacher expectation effects. First and foremost, he argued that most of the beliefs teachers hold about student are accurate, and so their expectations usually reflect students' actual performance levels. As a result, Brophy contended that [[self-fulfilling prophecy]] effects have relatively weak effects on student achievement, changing achievement 5% to 10%, although he did note that such effects usually are negative expectation effects rather than positive effects. Second, he pointed out that various situational and individual difference factors influence the extent to which teacher expectations will act as self-fulfilling prophecies. For instance, Brophy stated that expectancy effects may be larger in the early [[Elementary school|elementary]] grades, because teachers have more one-on-one interactions with students then, as they attempt to [[Socialization|socialize]] children into the student role. In the upper elementary grades more whole-class teaching methods are used, which may minimize expectation effects.<ref name="Brophy 1983"/> Some evidence supports this claim; expectancy effects in Rosenthal and Jacobson's study were strongest during the earlier grades.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Rosenthal | first1=Robert | last2=Jacobson | first2=Lenore | title=Pygmalion in the classroom | journal=The Urban Review | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=3 | issue=1 | year=1968 | issn=0042-0972 | doi=10.1007/bf02322211 | pages=16–20| s2cid=189835367 }}</ref> Raudenbush's [[meta-analysis]] of findings from different teacher expectancy studies in which expectancies were induced by giving teachers artificial information about children's intelligence showed that expectancy effects were stronger in [[First grade|grades 1]] and [[Second grade|2]] than in [[Third grade|grades 3]] through [[Sixth grade|Grade 6]], especially when the information was given to teachers during the first few weeks of school.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Raudenbush | first=Stephen W. | title=Magnitude of teacher expectancy effects on pupil IQ as a function of the credibility of expectancy induction: A synthesis of findings from 18 experiments. | journal=Journal of Educational Psychology | publisher=American Psychological Association | volume=76 | issue=1 | year=1984 | issn=0022-0663 | doi=10.1037/0022-0663.76.1.85 | pages=85–97}}</ref> These findings are particularly relevant because they show a form of the expectancy theory: how teachers have certain expectations of students, and how they treat the students differently because of those expectations.<ref name="Schunk, Dale H. 2012. pp. 96-97"/>