Editing Forgetting (section)

==Theories==
The four main theories of forgetting apparent in the study of psychology are as follows:

=== Cue-dependent forgetting ===

[[Cue-dependent forgetting]] (also, [[context-dependent memory|context-dependent forgetting]]) or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall a [[memory]] due to missing [[Stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]] or cues that were present at the time the memory was [[Encoding (memory)|encoded]]. Encoding is the first step in creating and remembering a memory. How well something has been encoded in the memory can be measured by completing specific tests of retrieval. Examples of these tests would be explicit ones like cued recall or implicit tests like word fragment completion.<ref name="memory encoding">Craik, F. M., & Rose, N. S. (2011). Memory encoding and aging: A neurocognitive perspective. Neuroscience And Biobehavioral Reviews</ref> Cue-dependent forgetting is one of five [[cognitive psychology]] theories of forgetting. This theory states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can bring it to mind. A good [[metaphor]] for this is searching for a book in a library without the [[Library of Congress Classification|reference number]], title, author or even subject. The information still exists, but without these cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a good [[Information retrieval|retrieval]] cue must be consistent with the original encoding of the information. If the sound of the word is [[Emphatic consonant|emphasized]] during the encoding process, the cue that should be used should also put emphasis on the [[phonetic]] quality of the word. Information is available however, just not readily available without these cues. Depending on the age of a person, retrieval cues and skills may not work as well. This is usually common in older adults but that is not always the case. When information is encoded into the memory and retrieved with a technique called [[spaced retrieval]], this helps older adults retrieve the events stored in the memory better.<ref name="role of forgetting" /> There is also evidence from different studies that show [[Memory and aging|age related changes in memory]].<ref name="memory encoding" /> These specific studies have shown that [[episodic memory]] performance does in fact decline with age and have made known that older adults produce vivid rates of forgetting when two items are combined and not encoded.<ref name="role of forgetting" />

=== Organic causes ===
Forgetting that occurs through physiological damage or dilapidation to the brain are referred to as organic causes of forgetting. These theories encompass the loss of information already retained in [[long-term memory]] or the inability to encode new information again. Examples include [[Alzheimer's]], [[amnesia]], [[dementia]], consolidation theory and the gradual slowing down of the central nervous system due to [[Memory and aging|aging]].

=== Interference theories ===
[[Interference theory]] refers to the idea that when the learning of something new causes forgetting of older material on the basis of competition between the two. This essentially states that memory's information may become confused or combined with other information during encoding, resulting in the distortion or disruption of memories.<ref name=simply /> In nature, the interfering items are said to originate from an overstimulating environment. Interference theory exists in three branches: '''Proactive, Retroactive and Output'''. Retroactive and Proactive inhibition each referring in contrast to the other. Retroactive interference is when new information (memories) interferes with older information. On the other hand, proactive interference is when old information interferes with the retrieval of new information.<ref>Underwood, B.J. (1957). 'Interference and forgetting' in Psychological Review</ref> This is sometimes thought to occur especially when memories are similar. Output Interference occurs when the initial act of recalling specific information interferes with the retrieval of the original information. Another reason why retrieval failure occurs is due to encoding failure. The information never made it to long-term memory storage. According to the level of processing theory, how well information is encoded depends on the level of processing a piece of information receives. Certain parts of information are better encoded than others; for example, information this visual imagery or that has a survival value is more easily transferred to the long-term memory storage.<ref>E Bruce Goldstein (2019). Cognitive psychology : connecting mind, research, and everyday experience. 5th ed. Boston, Ma, Usa: Cengage.</ref> This theory shows a contradiction: an extremely intelligent individual is expected to forget more hastily than one who has a slow mentality. For this reason, an intelligent individual has stored up more memory in his mind which will cause interferences and impair their ability to recall specific information.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=1922558|year=1964|title=Forgetting|journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal|volume=90|issue=13|page=794|pmid=20327804}}</ref> Based on current research, testing interference has only been carried out by recalling from a list of words rather than using situation from daily lives, thus it is hard to generalize the findings for this theory.<ref name=simply />
It has been found that interference related tasks decreased memory performance by up to 20%, with negative effects at all interference time points and large variability between participants concerning both the time point and the size of maximal interference. Furthermore, fast learners seem to be more affected by interference than slow learners.<ref name="Sosic-Vasic Hille Kröner et al 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Sosic-Vasic |first1=Zrinka |last2=Hille |first2=Katrin |last3=Kröner |first3=Julia |last4=Spitzer |first4=Manfred |last5=Kornmeier |first5=Jürgen |title=When Learning Disturbs Memory – Temporal Profile of Retroactive Interference of Learning on Memory Formation |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=16 February 2018 |volume=9 |page=82 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00082 |pmid=29503621 |pmc=5820352 |doi-access=free }}</ref> People are also less likely to recall items when intervening stimuli are presented within the first ten minutes after learning. Recall performance is better without interference.<ref name="Sosic-Vasic Hille Kröner et al 2018"/> Peripheral processes such as encoding time, recognition memory and motor execution decline with age. However proactive interference is similar. Suggesting contrary to earlier reports that the inhibitory processes observed with this paradigm remain intact in older adults.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Archambeau |first1=Kim |last2=Forstmann |first2=Birte |last3=Van Maanen |first3=Leendert |last4=Gevers |first4=Wim |title=Proactive interference in aging: A model-based study |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |date=February 2020 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=130–138 |doi=10.3758/s13423-019-01671-0 |pmid=31797260 |pmc=7000511 |s2cid=208620951 }}</ref>

=== Trace decay theory ===
[[Decay theory]] states that when something new is learned, a neurochemical, physical "memory trace" is formed in the brain and over time this trace tends to disintegrate, unless it is occasionally used. Decay theory states the reason we eventually forget something or an event is because the memory of it fades with time. If we do not attempt to look back at an event, the greater the interval time between the time when the event from happening and the time when we try to remember, the memory will start to fade. Time is the greatest impact in remembering an event.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Decay Theory of Forgetting|url=http://www.psychologyandsociety.com/Decaytheory.html}}</ref>

Trace decay theory explains memories that are stored in both short-term and long-term memory system, and assumes that the memories leave a trace in the brain.<ref name=simply>{{cite web|last=McLeod|first=Saul|title=Forgetting|url=http://www.simplypsychology.org/forgetting.html|publisher=Simply Psychology|access-date=1 May 2014}}</ref> According to this theory, short-term memory (STM) can only retain information for a limited amount of time, around 15 to 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed. If it is not rehearsed, the information will start to gradually fade away and decay. Donald Hebb proposed that incoming information causes a series of neurons to create a neurological memory trace in the brain which would result in change in the morphological and/or chemical changes in the brain and would fade with time. Repeated firing causes a structural change in the synapses. Rehearsal of repeated firing maintains the memory in STM until a structural change is made. Therefore, forgetting happens as a result of automatic decay of the memory trace in brain. This theory states that the events between learning and recall have no effects on recall; the important factor that affects is the duration that the information has been retained. Hence, as longer time passes more of traces are subject to decay and as a result the information is forgotten.

One major problem about this theory is that in real-life situation, the time between encoding a piece of information and recalling it, is going to be filled with all different kinds of events that might happen to the individual. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude that forgetting is a result of only the time duration. It is also important to consider the effectiveness of this theory. Although it seems very plausible, it is about impossible to test. It is difficult to create a situation where there is a blank period of time between presenting the material and recalling it later.<ref name=simply />

This theory is supposedly contradicted by the fact that one is able to ride a bike even after not having done so for decades. "[[Flashbulb memories]]" are another piece of seemingly contradicting evidence. It is believed that certain memories "trace decay" while others do not.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} Sleep is believed to play a key role in halting trace decay, although the exact mechanism of this is unknown.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

Physical and chemical changes in our brain lead to a memory trace, and this is based on the idea of the trace theory of memory. Information that gets into our short-term memory lasts a few seconds (15–20 seconds), and it fades away if it is not rehearsed or practiced as the neurochemical memory trace disappears rapidly. According to the trace decay theory of forgetting, what occurs between the creation of new memories and the recall of these memories is not influenced by the recall. However, the time between these events (memory formation and recalling) decides whether the information can be kept or forgotten. As there is an inverse correlation that if the time is short, more information can be recalled. On the other hand, if the time is long less information can be recalled or more information will be forgotten. This theory can be criticized for not sharing ideas on how some memories can stay and others can fade, though there was a long time between the formation and recall. Newness to something plays a crucial role in this situation. For instance, people are more likely to recall their very first day abroad than all of the intervening days between it and living there. Emotions also play a crucial role in this situation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ricker |first1=Timothy J. |last2=Vergauwe |first2=Evie |last3=Cowan |first3=Nelson |title=Decay Theory of Immediate Memory: From Brown (1958) to Today (2014) |journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology |date=October 2016 |volume=69 |issue=10 |pages=1969–1995 |doi=10.1080/17470218.2014.914546 |pmid=24853316 |pmc=4241183 }}</ref>