Editing Leopard (section)

== Behaviour and ecology ==
The leopard is a solitary and [[Territory (animal)|territorial]] animal. It is typically shy and alert when crossing roadways and encountering oncoming vehicles, but may be emboldened to attack people or other animals when threatened. Adults associate only in the mating season. Females continue to interact with their offspring even after weaning and have been observed sharing kills with their offspring when they can not obtain any prey. They produce a number of vocalizations, including growls, snarls, meows, and purrs. Cubs call their mother with an ''urr-urr'' sound.<ref name=estes/> The most notable vocalization is the 'sawing' [[roar]], which consists of deep, repeated strokes. This likely functions in establishing territories and attracting mates.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Growcott|first1=J|last2=Lobora|first2=A|last3=Markham|first3=A|last4=Searle|first4=C. E.|last5=Wahlström|first5=J|last6=Wijers|first6=M|last7=Simmons|first7=B. I.|year=2024| title=The secret acoustic world of leopards: A paired camera trap and bioacoustics survey facilitates the individual identification of leopards via their roars|journal=Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation|doi=10.1002/rse2.429}}</ref>

The whitish spots on the back of its ears are thought to play a role in communication.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leyhausen |first1=P. |year=1979 |title=Cat behavior: the predatory and social behavior of domestic and wild cats |location=Berlin |publisher=Garland Publishing, Incorporated |page=281 |isbn=9780824070175}}</ref>
It has been hypothesized that the white tips of their tails may function as a 'follow-me' signal in [[intraspecific]] communication. However, no significant association were found between a conspicuous colour of tail patches and behavioural variables in carnivores.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ortolani |first1=A. |year=1999 |title=Spots, stripes, tail tips and dark eyes: predicting the function of carnivore colour patterns using the comparative method |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=433–476 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01942.x |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caro |first1=T. |year=2005 |title=The adaptive significance of coloration in mammals |journal=BioScience |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=125–136 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0125:TASOCI]2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Leopards are mainly active from dusk till dawn and will rest for most of the day and some hours at night in thickets, among rocks or over tree branches. Leopards have been observed walking {{cvt|1|-|25|km|mi}} across their range at night; wandering up to {{cvt|75|km}} if disturbed.<ref name=estes/><ref name=nowak/> In some regions, they are [[Nocturnality|nocturnal]].<ref name=Hunter_al2003>{{cite journal |last1=Hunter |first1=L. |last2=Balme |first2=G. |last3=Walker |first3=C. |last4=Pretorius |first4=K. |last5=Rosenberg |first5=K. |name-list-style=amp |year=2003 |title=The landscape ecology of leopards (''Panthera pardus'') in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a preliminary project report |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=5 |pages=24–30 |url=http://www.biolsci.monash.edu.au/research/leopards/docs/ecojournal-2003.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304233241/http://www.biolsci.monash.edu.au/research/leopards/docs/ecojournal-2003.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2009}} {{open access}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spalton |first1=J.A. |name-list-style=amp |last2=Al Hikmani |first2=H. M. |last3=Willis |first3=D. |last4=Said |first4=A. S. B. |title=Critically endangered Arabian leopards ''Panthera pardus nimr'' persist in the Jabal Samhan Nature Reserve, Oman |journal=Oryx |date=2006 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=287–294 |doi=10.1017/S0030605306000743 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In western African forests, they have been observed to be largely [[Diurnality|diurnal]] and hunting during twilight, when their prey animals are active; activity patterns vary between seasons.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jenny |first1=D. |last2=Zuberbuhler |first2=K. |name-list-style=amp |title=Hunting behaviour in west African forest leopards |journal=African Journal of Ecology |date=2005 |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=197–200 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00565.x |bibcode=2005AfJEc..43..197J |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229882994 |access-date=2018-09-25 |archive-date=2018-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925142137/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229882994 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Leopards can climb trees quite skillfully, often resting on tree branches and descending headfirst.<ref name=CAP/>
They can run at over {{cvt|58|km/h|mph m/s}}, leap over {{cvt|6|m}} horizontally, and jump up to {{cvt|3|m}} vertically.<ref name="WCW">{{Cite book |last1=Sunquist |first1=M. E. |year=2002 |last2=Sunquist |first2=F. |name-list-style=amp |title=Wild Cats of the World |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-77999-7 |chapter=Leopard ''Panthera pardus'' |pages=318–342 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IF8nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA320 |access-date=2021-05-19 |archive-date=2024-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430033051/https://books.google.com/books?id=IF8nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA320#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{image frame|align=center|border=no|content=
<gallery mode=packed>
leopard rear view soft.jpg|A female leopard with white markings on the backs of her ears
leopard walking.jpg|A female leopard showing white spots on the tail
Leopard davidraju 68.jpg|A leopard climbing down a tree
Leopard hunting a bush pig - DPLA - 57da78c992bc6073d2751f3f8936aad0.jpg|A leopard hunting a [[bushpig]]
Leopard.ogv|Video of a leopard in the wild
</gallery>
}}

===Social spacing===
[[File:Day 47 Leopard (Panthera pardus) male marking a bush with urine ... (53310719953).jpg|thumb|A male leopard [[scent mark|scent-marking]] his territory<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bothma |first1=Jacobus du P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPvuCAAAQBAJ |title=Larger Carnivores of the African Savannas |last2=Walker |first2=Clive |date=2013-11-11 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-662-03766-9 |language=en |access-date=2024-01-06 |archive-date=2024-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106170223/https://books.google.com/books?id=DPvuCAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
In [[Kruger National Park]], most leopards tend to keep {{cvt|1|km|mi}} apart.<ref name=bailey93>{{cite book |last=Bailey |first=T. N. |year=1993 |title=The African leopard: a study of the ecology and behaviour of a solitary felid |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-932846-11-9}}</ref> Males occasionally interact with their partners and cubs, and exceptionally this can extend beyond to two generations.<ref name="Kingdon"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pirie |first1=T. J.|last2=Thomas |first2=R. L.|last3=Reilly|first3=B. K. |last4=Fellowes |first4=M. D. E. |name-list-style=amp |date=2014 |title=Social interactions between a male leopard (''Panthera pardus'') and two generations of his offspring |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=574–576 |doi=10.1111/aje.12154 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014AfJEc..52..574P}}</ref> Aggressive encounters are rare, typically limited to defending territories from intruders.<ref name=mammal/> In a South African reserve, a male was wounded in a male–male territorial battle over a carcass.<ref name=Hunter_al2003/>

Males occupy [[home range]]s that often overlap with a few smaller female home ranges, probably as a strategy to enhance access to females. In the [[Ivory Coast]], the home range of a female was completely enclosed within a male's.<ref name=Ivory>{{cite journal |author=Jenny, D. |year=1996 |title=Spatial organization of leopards ''Panthera pardus'' in Tai National Park, Ivory Coast: Is rainforest habitat a "tropical haven"? |journal=Journal of Zoology |issue=3 |volume=240 |pages=427–440 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1996.tb05296.x |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227901726 |access-date=2021-09-06 |archive-date=2024-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505145917/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227901726_Spatial_organization_of_leopards_Panthera_pardus_in_Tai_National_Park_Ivory_Coast_Is_rainforest_habitat_a_%27tropical_haven%27 |url-status=live}}</ref> Females live with their cubs in home ranges that overlap extensively, probably due to the association between mothers and their offspring. There may be a few other fluctuating home ranges belonging to young individuals. It is not clear if male home ranges overlap as much as those of females do. Individuals try to drive away intruders of the same sex.<ref name=estes/><ref name=nowak/>

A study of leopards in the Namibian farmlands showed that the size of home ranges was not significantly affected by sex, rainfall patterns or season; the higher the prey availability in an area, the greater the leopard population density and the smaller the size of home ranges, but they tend to expand if there is human interference.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Marker |first1=L. L. |last2=Dickman |first2=A. J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Factors affecting leopard (''Panthera pardus'') spatial ecology, with particular reference to Namibian farmlands |journal=South African Journal of Wildlife Research |date=2005 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=105–115 |url=http://reference.sabinet.co.za/webx/access/journal_archive/03794369/3418.pdf}} {{open access}}</ref>
Sizes of home ranges vary geographically and depending on habitat and availability of prey. In the [[Serengeti]], males have home ranges of {{cvt|33|-|38|km2|sqmi}} and females of {{cvt|14|-|16|km2|sqmi}};<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertram |first1=B. C. R.|title=Leopard ecology as studied by radio tracking |journal=Symposia of the Zoological Society of London |date=1982 |volume=49|pages=341–352}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mizutani, F. |last2=Jewell, P. A. |name-list-style=amp |year=1998 |title=Home-range and movements of leopards (''Panthera pardus'') on a livestock ranch in Kenya |journal=Journal of Zoology |pages=269–286 |volume=244 |issue=2 |doi=10.1017/S0952836998002118}}</ref> but males in northeastern Namibia of {{cvt|451|km2|sqmi}} and females of {{cvt|188|km2|sqmi}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stander |first1=P. E. |last2=Haden |first2=P. J. |last3=Kaqece |first3=II. |last4=Ghau |first4=II. |name-list-style=amp|title=The ecology of asociality in Namibian leopards|journal=Journal of Zoology |date=1997 |volume=242|issue=2 |pages=343–364 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05806.x}}</ref> They are even larger in arid and montane areas.<ref name=mammal/> In Nepal's [[Bardia National Park]], male home ranges of {{cvt|48|km2|sqmi}} and female ones of {{cvt|5|-|7|km2|sqmi}} are smaller than those generally observed in Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Odden, M. |author2=Wegge, P. |name-list-style=amp |year=2005 |title=Spacing and activity patterns of leopards ''Panthera pardus'' in the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal |journal=Wildlife Biology |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=145–152 |doi=10.2981/0909-6396(2005)11[145:SAAPOL]2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free |s2cid=86140708}}</ref>

=== Hunting and diet ===
{{multiple image |perrow=1 |image1=Leopard (Panthera pardus pardus) stalking.jpg |caption1=Leopard stalking |image2=Leopard kill - KNP - 001.jpg|caption2=Leopard applying a throat bite to a [[Cape bushbuck|bushbuck]]|image3=Leopardo (Panthera pardus) devorando un antílope, parque nacional Kruger, Sudáfrica, 2018-07-26, DD 06.jpg |caption3=Leopard caches a kill in a tree}}

The leopard is a [[carnivore]] that prefers medium-sized prey with a body mass ranging from {{cvt|10|–|40|kg|lb}}. Prey species in this weight range tend to occur in dense habitat and to form small herds. Species that prefer open areas and have well-developed anti-predator strategies are less preferred. More than 100 prey species have been recorded. The most preferred species are [[ungulates]], such as [[impala]], [[Cape bushbuck|bushbuck]], [[common duiker]] and [[chital]]. [[Primate]]s preyed upon include [[white-eyelid mangabey]]s, [[guenon]]s and [[gray langur]]s. Leopards also kill smaller carnivores like [[black-backed jackal]], [[bat-eared fox]], [[genet (animal)|genet]] and cheetah.<ref name=Hayward2006>{{cite journal |last1=Hayward |first1=M.W. |last2=Henschel |first2=P. |last3=O'Brien |first3=J. |last4=Hofmeyr |first4=M. |last5=Balme |first5=G. |last6=Kerley |first6=G. I. H. |name-list-style=amp |title=Prey preferences of the leopard (''Panthera pardus'') |journal=Journal of Zoology |date=2006 |volume=270 |issue=4 |pages=298–313 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00139.x |url=http://www.ibs.bialowieza.pl/g2/pdf/1596.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105063845/http://www.ibs.bialowieza.pl/g2/pdf/1596.pdf |archive-date=2012-11-05 |url-status=live}}</ref> In urban environments, [[domestic dog]]s provide an important food source.<ref name=Powell2021/> The largest prey killed by a leopard was reportedly a male [[Taurotragus|eland]] weighing {{cvt|900|kg}}.<ref name=WCW/> A study in [[Wolong National Nature Reserve]] in southern China demonstrated variation in the leopard's diet over time; over the course of seven years, the vegetative cover receded, and leopards opportunistically shifted from primarily consuming [[tufted deer]] to pursuing [[Chinese bamboo rat|bamboo rat]]s and other smaller prey.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Johnson, K. G. |author2=Wei, W. |author3=Reid, D. G. |author4=Jinchu, H. |date=1993 |title=Food habits of Asiatic leopards (''Panthera pardus fusca'') in Wolong Reserve, Sichuan, China |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=646–650 |jstor=1382285 |doi=10.2307/1382285}}</ref>

The leopard depends mainly on its acute senses of hearing and vision for hunting.<ref name=Mills>{{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=M. G. L. |last2=Hes |first2=L. |name-list-style=amp |isbn=978-0-947430-55-9|pages=178–180 |publisher=Struik Publishers|location=Cape Town, South Africa |title=The Complete Book of Southern African Mammals |year=1997}}</ref> It primarily hunts at night in most areas.<ref name=estes/> In western African forests and Tsavo National Park, they have also been observed hunting by day.<ref name=hamilton76>{{cite thesis |last=Hamilton |first=P. H. |year=1976 |title=The movements of leopards in Tsavo National Park, Kenya, as determined by radio-tracking |degree= M.Sc. |publisher=University of Nairobi |location=Nairobi}}</ref> They usually hunt on the ground. In the Serengeti, they have been seen to ambush prey by descending on it from trees.<ref name= Kruuk>{{cite journal |last1=Kruuk |first1=H. |last2=Turner |first2=M. |name-list-style=amp |date=1967 |title=Comparative notes on predation by lion, leopard, cheetah and wild dog in the Serengeti area, East Africa |journal=Mammalia |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=1–27 |doi=10.1515/mamm.1967.31.1.1 |s2cid=84619500}}</ref> It stalks its prey and tries to approach as closely as possible, typically within {{cvt|5|m}} of the target, and, finally, pounces on it and kills it by suffocation. It kills small prey with a bite to the back of the neck, but holds larger animals [[Throat clamp|by the throat and strangles them]].<ref name=estes/> It [[Cache (biology)|caches]] kills up to {{cvt|2|km|mi}} apart.<ref name=Kingdon/> It is able to take large prey due to its powerful jaw muscles, and is therefore strong enough to drag carcasses heavier than itself up into trees; an individual was seen to haul a young giraffe weighing nearly {{cvt|125|kg}} up {{cvt|5.7|m|ftin}} into a tree.<ref name=hamilton76/> It eats small prey immediately, but drags larger carcasses over several hundred metres and caches it safely in trees, bushes or even caves; this behaviour allows the leopard to store its prey away from rivals, and offers it an advantage over them. The way it stores the kill depends on local topography and individual preferences, varying from trees in Kruger National Park to bushes in the plain terrain of the Kalahari.<ref name=mammal/><ref name=Schaller72>{{cite book |last=Schaller |first=G. |year=1972 |title=Serengeti: a kingdom of predators |publisher=Knopf |location=New York |isbn=978-0-394-47242-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJ_wAAAAMAAJ |access-date=2020-09-18 |archive-date=2024-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505150524/https://books.google.com/books?id=wJ_wAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Average daily consumption rates of {{cvt|3.5|kg|lboz}} were estimated for males and of {{cvt|2.8|kg|lboz}} for females.<ref name=bailey93/> In the southern [[Kalahari Desert]], leopards meet their water requirements by the bodily fluids of prey and [[succulent plant]]s; they drink water every two to three days and feed infrequently on moisture-rich plants such as [[gemsbok cucumber]]s, [[watermelon]] and Kalahari [[Schmidtia|sour grass]].<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Bothma |first1=J. du P. |title=Water-use by southern Kalahari leopards |journal=South African Journal of Wildlife Research |date=2005 |volume=35 |pages=131–137 |url=http://reference.sabinet.co.za/webx/access/journal_archive/03794369/2353.pdf}} {{open access}}</ref>

===Enemies and competitors===
[[File:Lioness vs Leopard 9 July 2016 Latest Sightings 1.png|thumb|A lioness steals a leopard kill in Kruger National Park]] 
Across its range, the leopard coexists with a number of other large predators. In Africa, it is part of a large predator [[Guild (ecology)|guild]] with lions, cheetahs, [[spotted hyena|spotted]] and [[brown hyena]]s, and [[African wild dog]]s.<ref name=Rafiaq2020>{{cite journal|last1=Rafiq|first1=K.|last2=Wayward |first2=M. W.|last3=Wilson|first3=A. M.|last4=Meloro|first4=C. |last5=Jordan|first5=N. R. |last6=Wich |first6=S. A. |last7=McNutt|first7=J. W. |last8=Golabek|first8=K. A.|year=2020|title=Spatial and temporal overlaps between leopards (''Panthera pardus'') and their competitors in the African large predator guild|journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=311 |issue=4 |pages=246–259 |doi=10.1111/jzo.12781}}</ref> The leopard is dominant only over the cheetah while the others have the advantage of size, pack numbers or both.<ref name=estes/> Lions pose a great mortal threat and can be responsible for 22% of leopard deaths in [[Sabi Sand Game Reserve]]. Spotted hyenas are less threatening but are more likely to [[Kleptoparasitism|steal kills]], being the culprits of up to 50% of stolen leopard kills in the same area.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Balme|first1=G. A.|last2=Pitman|first2=R. T.|last3=Robinson|first3=H. S.|last4=Miller|first4=J. R. B.|last5=Funston|first5=P. J.|last6=Hunter|first6=L. T. B.|year=2017|title=Leopard distribution and abundance is unaffected by interference competition with lions|journal=Behavioral Ecology |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=1348–1358 |doi=10.1093/beheco/arx098}}</ref><ref name=Balme2017>{{cite journal|last1=Balme|first1=G. A. |last2=Miller |first2=J. R. B.|last3=Pitman|first3=R. T.|last4=Hunter|first4=L. T. B.|year=2017|title=Caching reduces kleptoparasitism in a solitary, large felid|journal=Journal of Animal Ecology|volume=86|issue=3 |pages=634–644 |doi=10.1111/1365-2656.12654 |pmid=28217865 |bibcode=2017JAnEc..86..634B}}</ref> To counter this, leopards store their kills in the trees and out of reach.<ref name=Balme2017/><ref name=Vissia2022>{{cite journal|last1=Vissia|first1=S.|last2=Fattebert|first2=J. |last3=van Langevelde|first3=F. |year=2022 |title=Leopard density and interspecific spatiotemporal interactions in a hyena-dominated landscape|journal=Ecology and Evolution |volume=12 |issue=10 |page=e9365 |doi=10.1002/ece3.9365 |pmid=36225822 |pmc=9534747 |bibcode=2022EcoEv..12E9365V}}</ref> Lions have a high success rate in fetching leopard kills from trees.<ref name=Balme2017/> Leopards do not seem to actively avoid their competitors but rather difference in prey and habitat preferences appear to limit their spatial overlap.<ref name=Rafiaq2020/> In particular, leopards use heavy vegetation regardless of whether lions are present in an area and both cats are active at the same time of day.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller|first1=J. R. B. |last2=Pitman |first2=R. T. |last3=Mann |first3=G. K. H. |last4=Fuller|first4=A. K.|last5=Balme|first5=G. A. |year=2018|title=Lions and leopards coexist without spatial, temporal or demographic effects of interspecific competition |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=1709–1726 |doi=10.1111/1365-2656.12883 |pmid=30010193 |bibcode=2018JAnEc..87.1709M}}</ref>

In Asia, the leopard's main competitors are tigers and [[dhole]]s. Both the larger tiger and pack-living dhole dominate leopards during encounters. Interactions between the three predators involve chasing, stealing kills and direct killing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Srivathsa |first1=A. |last2=Ramachandran|first2=V. |last3=Saravanan |first3=P. |last4=Sureshbabu |first4=A. |last5=Ganguly |first5=D. |last6=Ramakrishnan |first6=U. |year=2023 |title=Topcats and underdogs: intraguild interactions among three apex carnivores across Asia's forestscapes |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=98 |issue=6 |pages=2114–2135 |doi=10.1111/brv.12998 |pmid=37449566 |s2cid=259903849 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of the forest while leopards and dholes are pushed closer to the fringes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Thinley, P. |author2=Rajaratnam, R. |author3=Lassoie, J. P. |author4=Morreale, S. J. |author5=Curtis, P. D. |author6=Vernes, K. |author7=Leki Leki |author8=Phuntsho, S. |author9=Dorji, T. |author10=Dorji, P. |name-list-style=amp |year=2018 |title=The ecological benefit of tigers (''Panthera tigris'') to farmers in reducing crop and livestock losses in the eastern Himalayas: Implications for conservation of large apex predators |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=219 |pages=119–125 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2018.08.007 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The three predators coexist by hunting different sized prey.<ref name=Karanth>{{cite journal |last=Karanth |first=K. U. |author2=Sunquist, M. E. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=Behavioural correlates of predation by tiger (''Panthera tigris''), leopard (''Panthera pardus'') and dhole (''Cuon alpinus'') in Nagarahole, India | journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=250 |pages=255–265 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb01076.x |issue=2}}</ref> In [[Nagarhole National Park]], the average size for a leopard kill was {{cvt|37.6|kg}} compared to {{cvt|91.5|kg}} for tigers and {{cvt|43.4|kg}} for dholes.<ref name=KaranthSunquist1995>{{cite journal |author1=Karanth, K. U. |author2=Sunquist, M. E. |name-list-style=amp |title=Prey selection by tiger, leopard and dhole in tropical forests |jstor=5647 |doi=10.2307/5647 |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |volume=64 |issue=4 |year=1995 |pages=439–450|bibcode=1995JAnEc..64..439K}}</ref> At [[Kui Buri National Park]], following a reduction in prey numbers, tigers continued to feed on favoured prey while leopards and dholes had to increase their consumption of small prey.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Steinmetz, R. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Seuaturien, N. |author3=Intanajitjuy, P. |author4=Inrueang, P. |author5=Prempree, K. |year=2021 |title=The effects of prey depletion on dietary niches of sympatric apex predators in Southeast Asia |journal=Integrative Zoology |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=19–32 |doi=10.1111/1749-4877.12461|pmid=32627329 }}</ref> Leopards can live successfully in tiger habitat when there is abundant food and vegetation cover.<ref name=Karanth/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Odden, M. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Wegge, P. |author3=Fredriksen, T. |year=2010 |title=Do tigers displace leopards? If so, why? |journal=Ecological Research |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=875–881 |doi=10.1007/s11284-010-0723-1 |bibcode=2010EcoR...25..875O}}</ref> Otherwise, they appear to be less common where tigers are numerous. The recovery of the tiger population in [[Rajaji National Park]] during the 2000s led to a reduction in leopard population densities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harihar |first1=A. |last2=Pandav |first2=B. |last3=Goyal |first3=S. P. |year=2011 |title=Responses of leopard ''Panthera pardus'' to the recovery of a tiger ''Panthera tigris'' population |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=806–814 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.01981.x|doi-access=free |bibcode=2011JApEc..48..806H |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>

===Reproduction and life cycle===
{{multiple image |perrow=1 |image2=Leopards mating.jpg |caption2=Leopards mating |image3=David Raju Leopard 3457 (cropped).jpg |caption3=Leopard cubs in tree}}

In some areas, leopards mate all year round. In [[Manchuria]] and [[Siberia]], they mate during January and February. On average, females begin to breed between the ages of 2½ and three, and males between the ages of two and three.<ref name=CAP/> The female's [[estrous cycle]] lasts about 46 days, and she is usually in heat for 6–7 days.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.1966.tb01746.x |author=Sadleir, R. |year=1966 |title=Notes on the Reproduction of the larger Felidae |journal=International Zoo Yearbook|volume=6 |pages=184–187}}</ref> [[Gestation]] lasts for 90 to 105 days.<ref>{{cite book |author=Hemmer, H. |year=1976 |chapter=Gestation period and postnatal development in felids |pages=143–165 |editor=Eaton, R.L. |title=The World's Cats |volume=3 |publisher=Carnivore Research Institute, Univ. Washington, Seattle}}</ref> Cubs are usually born in a [[Litter (zoology)|litter]] of 2–4 cubs.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Eaton, R.L. |year=1977 |title=Reproductive biology of the leopard |journal=Zoologischer Garten |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages =329–351}}</ref> The mortality rate of cubs is estimated at 41–50% during the first year.<ref name="bailey93" /> Predators are the biggest cause for leopard cub mortality during their first year. Male leopards are known to cause [[infanticide (zoology)|infanticide]], in order to bring the female back into heat.<ref name=Kingdon/> Intervals between births average 15 to 24 months, but can be shorter, depending on the survival of the cubs.<ref name=CAP/>

Females give birth in a cave, crevice among boulders, hollow tree or thicket. Newborn cubs weigh {{Cvt|280-1000|g}}, and are born with closed eyes, which open four to nine days after birth.<ref name=WCW/><ref name=mammal/> The fur of the young tends to be longer and thicker than that of adults. Their pelage is also more gray in colour with less defined spots. They begin to eat meat at around nine weeks.<ref name="Kingdon"/> Around three months of age, the young begin to follow the mother on hunts. At one year of age, cubs can probably fend for themselves, but will remain with the mother for 18–24 months.<ref name=CMBC>{{cite web |url=https://brainmuseum.org/Specimens/carnivora/leopard/index.html |title=Leopard (''Panthera pardus''); Physical characteristics and distribution |work=Comparative Mammalian Brain Collections |access-date=2008-06-07 |archive-date=2011-01-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103183140/http://www.brainmuseum.org/specimens/carnivora/leopard/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> After separating from their mother, sibling cubs may travel together for months.<ref name=CAP/> Both male and female leopards typically reach sexual maturity at 2–2⅓ years.<ref name=Kingdon/>

The [[Generation time|generation length]] of the leopard is 9.3 years.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Generation length for mammals |last1=Pacifici |first1=M. |last2=Santini |first2=L. |last3=Di Marco |first3=M. |last4=Baisero |first4=D. |name-list-style=amp |last5=Francucci |first5=L. |last6=Grottolo Marasini |first6=G. |last7=Visconti |first7=P. |last8=Rondinini |first8=C. |journal=Nature Conservation |year=2013 |issue=5 |pages=87–94}}</ref>
The average life span of a leopard is 12–17 years.<ref name=WCW/> 
The oldest leopard was a captive female that died at the age of 24 years, 2 months and 13 days.<ref>{{cite news |author=Salisbury, S. |date=2014 |url=http://www.palmbeachpost.com/news/news/roxanne-oldest-spotted-leopard-in-captivity-dies-a/ngyYc/ |title=Roxanne, oldest spotted leopard in captivity, dies at Acreage preserve |newspaper=The Palm Beach Post |archive-date=2014-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811165340/http://www.palmbeachpost.com/news/news/roxanne-oldest-spotted-leopard-in-captivity-dies-a/ngyYc/}}</ref>