Editing Lewis and Clark Expedition (section)

== Encounters with Native Americans ==
One of the expedition's primary objectives as directed by President Jefferson was to be a surveillance mission that would report back the whereabouts, military strength, lives, activities, and cultures of the various Native American tribes that inhabited the territory newly acquired by the United States as part of the [[Louisiana Purchase]] and the northwest in general. The expedition was to make native people understand that their lands now belonged to the United States and that "their great father" in Washington was now their sovereign.<ref>Pekka Hamalainen, ''Lakota America, a New History of Indigenous Power,'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019), pp. 129–131 {{ISBN?}}</ref> The expedition encountered many different native nations and tribes along the way, many of whom offered their assistance, providing the expedition with their knowledge of the wilderness and with the acquisition of food. The expedition had blank leather-bound journals and ink for the purpose of recording such encounters, as well as for scientific and geological information. They were also provided with various gifts of medals, ribbons, needles, mirrors, and other articles which were intended to ease any tensions when negotiating their passage with the various Native American chiefs whom they would encounter along their way.<ref name="Josephy">[[#Josephy2006|Josephy, 2006]] p. vi</ref><ref name="Allen, Lewis p.52">[[#allen1|Allen, Lewis & Clark, Vol. 1, 1916]] p. 52</ref><ref name="Ambrose, 1996 p.169">[[#Ambrose|Ambrose, 1996]] p. 169</ref><ref name="Woodger pp.8, 337">[[#Woodger|Woodger & Toropov, 2009]] pp. 8, 337–338</ref>

Many of the tribes had friendly experiences with British and French fur traders in various isolated encounters along the Missouri and Columbia Rivers, and for the most part the expedition did not encounter hostilities. However, there was a tense confrontation on September 25, 1804, with the Teton-[[Sioux]] tribe (also known as the [[Lakota people]], one of the three tribes that comprise the [[Great Sioux Nation]]), under chiefs that included Black Buffalo and the Partisan. These chiefs confronted the expedition and demanded tribute from the expedition for their passage over the river.<ref name="Josephy"/><ref name="Allen, Lewis p.52"/><ref name="Ambrose, 1996 p.169"/><ref name="Woodger pp.8, 337"/> The seven native tribes that comprised the Lakota people controlled a vast inland empire and expected gifts from strangers who wished to navigate their rivers or to pass through their lands.<ref>Pekka Hamalainen, ''Lakota America, a New History of Indigenous Power,'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019), pp. 130–136 {{ISBN?}}</ref> According to Harry W. Fritz, "All earlier Missouri River travelers had warned of this powerful and aggressive tribe, determined to block free trade on the river. ... The Sioux were also expecting a retaliatory raid from the [[Omaha people|Omaha]] tribe, to the south. A recent Sioux raid had killed 75 Omaha men, burned 40 lodges, and taken four dozen prisoners."<ref>Harry W. Fritz (2004). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GFFHn18Z7ywC&pg=PA14 The Lewis and Clark Expedition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128072830/https://books.google.com/books?id=GFFHn18Z7ywC&pg=PA14 |date=January 28, 2024 }}''". Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 14. {{ISBN|0313316619}}</ref>

Captain Lewis made his first mistake by offering the Sioux chief gifts first, which insulted and angered the Partisan chief. Communication was difficult, since the expedition's only Sioux language interpreter was Pierre Dorion who had stayed behind with the other party and was also involved with diplomatic affairs with another tribe. Consequently, both chiefs were offered a few gifts, but neither was satisfied and they wanted some gifts for their warriors and tribe. At that point, some of the warriors from the Partisan tribe took hold of their boat and one of the oars. Lewis took a firm stand, ordering a display of force and presenting arms; Captain Clark brandished his sword and threatened violent reprisal. Just before the situation erupted into a violent confrontation, Black Buffalo ordered his warriors to back off.<ref name="Josephy"/><ref name="Allen, Lewis p.52"/><ref name="Ambrose, 1996 p.169"/><ref name="Woodger pp.8, 337"/>

The captains were able to negotiate their passage without further incident with the aid of better gifts and a bottle of whiskey. During the next two days, the expedition made camp not far from Black Buffalo's tribe. Similar incidents occurred when they tried to leave, but trouble was averted with gifts of tobacco.<ref name="Josephy"/><ref name="Allen, Lewis p.52"/><ref name="Ambrose, 1996 p.169"/><ref name="Woodger pp.8, 337"/>

=== Observations ===
As the expedition encountered the various Native American tribes during the course of their journey, they observed and recorded information regarding their lifestyles, customs and the social codes they lived by, as directed by President Jefferson. By European standards, the Native American way of life seemed harsh and unforgiving as witnessed by members of the expedition. After many encounters and camping in close proximity to the Native American nations for extended periods of time during the winter months, they soon learned first hand of their customs and social orders.

One of the primary customs that distinguished Native American cultures from those of the West was that it was customary for the men to take on two or more wives if they were able to provide for them and often took on a wife or wives who were members of the immediate family circle, e.g. men in the [[Minnetaree]] {{#tag:ref|aka the ''Hidatsa''|group="note"}} and [[Mandan]] tribes would often take on a sister for a wife. Chastity among women was not held in high regard. Infant daughters were often sold by the father to men who were grown, usually for horses or mules.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}} Women in Sioux nations were often bartered away for horses or other supplies; yet this was not practiced among the [[Shoshone]] nation, who held their women in higher regard.<ref>[[#Lewis&Clark1893-v2|Coues, Lewis, Clark, Jefferson 1893]], Vol. 2 pp. 557–558</ref>

They witnessed that many of the Native American nations were constantly at war with other tribes, especially the Sioux, who, while remaining generally friendly to the white fur traders, had proudly boasted of and justified the almost complete destruction of the once great [[Cahokia people|Cahokia]] nation, along with the Missouris, Illinois, [[Kaskaskia]], and Piorias tribes that lived about the countryside adjacent to the upper Mississippi and Missouri rivers.<ref>[[#Lewis&Clark1905|Lewis, Clark Floyd, Whitehouse, 1905]] p. 93</ref>

=== Sacagawea ===
{{Main|Sacagawea}}
[[File:Sakakawea-statue-bismarck-nd-2004.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Sacagawea]], a Shoshone woman who accompanied the Lewis and Clark Expedition]]

Sacagawea, sometimes spelled Sakajawea or Sakagawea ({{circa}} 1788{{snds}}December 20, 1812), was a Shoshone Native American woman who arrived with her husband and owner [[Toussaint Charbonneau]] on the expedition to the Pacific Ocean.

On February 11, 1805, a few weeks after her first contact with the expedition, Sacagawea went into labor which was slow and painful, so the Frenchman Charbonneau suggested she be given a potion of rattlesnake's rattle to aid in her delivery. Lewis happened to have some snake's rattle with him. A short time after administering the potion, she delivered a healthy boy who was given the name [[Jean Baptiste Charbonneau]].<ref>[[#Lewis&Clark1893|Coues, Lewis, Clark, Jefferson 1893]], Vol. 1 p. 229</ref><ref>[[#Clark|Clark & Edmonds, 1983]] p. 15</ref>

When the expedition reached Marias River, on June 16, 1805, Sacagawea became dangerously ill. She was able to find some relief by drinking mineral water from the sulphur spring that fed into the river.<ref>[[#Lewis&Clark1893|Coues, Lewis, Clark, Jefferson 1893]], Vol. 1 p. 377</ref>

Though she has been discussed in literature frequently, much of the information is exaggeration or fiction. Scholars say she did notice some geographical features, but "Sacagawea ... was not the guide for the Expedition, she was important to them as an interpreter and in other ways."<ref>[[#Clark|Clark & Edmonds, 1983]] p. 16</ref> The sight of a woman and her infant son would have been reassuring to some indigenous nations, and she played an important role in diplomatic relations by talking to chiefs, easing tensions, and giving the impression of a peaceful mission.<ref>[[#Fritz|Fritz, 2004]] p. 19</ref><ref>[[#Clark|Clark & Edmonds, 1983]] pp. 16, 27</ref>

In his writings, Meriwether Lewis presented a somewhat negative view of her, though Clark had a higher regard for her, and provided some support for her children in subsequent years. In the journals, they used the terms "squar" ([[squaw]]) and "savages" to refer to Sacagawea and other indigenous peoples.<ref>[[#Ronda|Ronda, 1984]] pp. 258–259</ref>