Editing Linus Pauling (section)

==Activism==
===Wartime work===
[[File:Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer 2012 002 5132 cn69m4659.tiff|thumb|right|Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer, ca. 1950]]
Pauling had been practically apolitical until [[World War II]]. At the beginning of the [[Manhattan Project]], Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project. He declined, not wanting to uproot his family.<ref name="Hiroshima">{{Cite web |title=Hiroshima |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page4.html |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement |publisher=Special Collections & Archives Research Center, Oregon State University}}</ref>

[[File:Beckman Model 735 Dissolved O2 Analyzer 2012 002 3598 jm214p459 crop.tiff|thumb|right|
Beckman Model 735 Dissolved {{O2|nolink=no}} Analyzer, later model based on Pauling's design, 1968]]
[[File:Beckman Model D Oxygen Meter with infant incubator 73666474j.tiff|thumb|right|Beckman Model D Oxygen Meter, based on Pauling's design, with infant incubator, 1959]]

Pauling did, however, work on research for the military. He was a principal investigator on 14 [[Office of Scientific Research and Development|OSRD contracts]].<ref name="Kay2">{{Cite book |last=Kay |first=Lily E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVtMCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT161 |title=The molecular vision of life : Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the rise of the new biology |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511143-9 |location=New York |page=179 |access-date=December 27, 2015}}</ref>  The [[National Defense Research Committee]] called a meeting on October 3, 1940, wanting an instrument that could reliably measure oxygen content in a mixture of gases, so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines and airplanes. In response Pauling designed the Pauling oxygen meter, which was developed and manufactured by [[Arnold O. Beckman|Arnold O. Beckman, Inc.]] After the war, Beckman adapted the oxygen analyzers for use in incubators for premature babies.<ref name="hundred">{{Cite book |last1=Thackray |first1=Arnold |author1-link=Arnold Thackray |title=Arnold O. Beckman : one hundred years of excellence |last2=Minor Myers, Jr. |publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation |others=foreword by James D. Watson |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-941901-23-9 |location=Philadelphia, Pa. |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>{{rp|180–186}}<ref name="D2OxygenAnalyzer">{{Cite web |title=Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer |url=http://www.woodlibrarymuseum.org/museum/item/525/beckman-d2-oxygen-analyzer |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Wood Library-Museum of Anesthesiology}}</ref>

In 1942, Pauling successfully submitted a proposal on "The Chemical Treatment of Protein Solutions in the Attempt to Find a Substitute for Human Serum for Transfusions". His project group, which included Joseph B. Koepfli and Dan H. Campbell, developed a possible replacement for [[Blood plasma|human blood plasma]] in [[Blood transfusion|transfusions]]: [[polyoxy gelatin]] (Oxypolygelatin).<ref name="Oxypolygelatin">{{Cite web |date=January 27, 2009 |title=Blood and War: The Development of Oxypolygelatin, Part 1 |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/01/27/blood-and-war-the-development-of-oxypolygelatin-part-1/ |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=The Pauling Blog}}</ref><ref name="Chadarevian">{{Cite book |last=Chadarevian |first=Soraya de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2B4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |title=Molecularizing biology and medicine new practices and alliances, 1910s–1970s |date=1998 |publisher=Harwood Academic |isbn=978-90-5702-293-7 |location=Amsterdam |page=109 |access-date=May 28, 2015}}</ref>

Other wartime projects with more direct military applications included work on explosives, rocket propellants and the patent for an armor-piercing shell.  In October 1948, Pauling, along with [[Lee Alvin DuBridge|Lee A. DuBridge]], [[William Alfred Fowler|William A. Fowler]], [[Max Mason]], and [[Bruce Hornbrook Sage|Bruce H. Sage]], was awarded a [[Presidential Medal for Merit]] by President [[Harry S. Truman]].  The citation credits him for his "imaginative mind", "brilliant success", and "exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services".<ref name="PMFM">{{Cite web |title=Presidential Medal for Merit |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/1948h.1.html |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling Awards Honors and Medals}}</ref><ref name="NLM">{{Cite web |title=The Linus Pauling Papers: Biographical Information |url=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/Views/Exhibit/narrative/biographical.html |access-date=February 11, 2008 |publisher=United States National Library of Medicine}}</ref><ref name="Paulus">{{Cite news |last=Paulus |first=John Allen |date=November 5, 1995 |title=Pauling's Prizes |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D05E3DE1739F936A35752C1A963958260& |access-date=December 9, 2007}}</ref>  In 1949, he served as president of the [[American Chemical Society]].<ref name="ACS1949">{{Cite web |title=ACS President: Linus Pauling (1901–1994) |url=http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/about/president/acspresidents/linus-pauling.html |access-date=June 1, 2015 |website=ACS Chemistry for Life}}</ref>

===Nuclear activism===

The aftermath of the [[Manhattan Project]] and his wife Ava's pacifism changed Pauling's life profoundly, and he became a peace activist.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

In June 1945, a "May-Johnson Bill" began<ref>{{Citation |title=Part VI: The Manhattan District in Peacetime: The May-Johnson Bill |date=1998 |url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/mp/p6s6.shtml |publisher=Atomic Archive |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Atomic Energy Commission |date=November 18, 2016 |url=https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/atomic-energy-commission |publisher=Atomic Heritage Foundation |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Roy Glauber & Priscilla McMillan on Oppenheimer – Atomic Energy Commission |date=June 6, 2013 |url=https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/roy-glauber-priscilla-mcmillan-oppenheimer |publisher=Voices of the Manhattan Project |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref> that would become the [[Atomic Energy Act of 1946]] (signed August 1, 1946). In November 1945, Pauling spoke to the [[Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions]] (ICCASP) on [[atomic weapons]]; shortly after, wife Ava and he accepted membership.<ref name="PaulingICCASP">{{Citation |title=The Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions |date=2009 |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2010/07/15/the-independent-citizens-committee-for-the-arts-sciences-and-professions/ |publisher=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref>  On January 21, 1946, the group met to discuss [[academic freedom]], during which Pauling said, "There is, of course, always a threat to academic freedom – as there is to the other aspects of the freedom and rights of the individual, in the continued attacks which are made on this freedom, these rights, by the selfish, the overly ambitious, the misguided, the unscrupulous, who seek to oppress the great body of mankind in order that they themselves may profit – and we must always be on the alert against this threat, and must fight it with vigor when it becomes dangerous."<ref name=PaulingICCASP/>

In 1946, he joined the [[Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists]], chaired by [[Albert Einstein]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Einstein |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page9.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons.
[[File:Letter from Ruth B. Shipley, Chief Passport Division, Department of State (United States) to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952.jpg|thumb|Denial letter from [[Ruth B. Shipley]], Chief Passport Division, Department of State to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952]]
His political activism prompted the [[United States Department of State|US State Department]] to deny him a passport in 1952, when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling |url=http://usstampgallery.com/view.php?id=3228fbec24ea876e8035f61b5fcd643af29a611c |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=U.S. Stamp Gallery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=May 1952 |title=The Department of State and the Structure of Proteins |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/notes/1952a.18.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> In a speech before the [[US Senate]] on June 6 of the same year, Senator [[Wayne Morse]] publicly denounced the action of the State Department, and urged the Passport Division to reverse its decision. Pauling and his wife Ava were then issued a "limited passport" to attend the conference.<ref>Robert Paradowski (2011), Oregon State University, Special Collections p.18, [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page18.html Proteins, Passports, and the Prize (1950–1954)], retrieved February 1, 2013</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=sg0AAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA255 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Vol. VIII, Nr. 7] (Okt. 1952) p. 254, Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.</ref> His full passport was restored in 1954, shortly before the ceremony in [[Stockholm]] where he received his first Nobel Prize.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Joining Einstein, [[Bertrand Russell]] and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals, he signed the [[Russell-Einstein Manifesto]] issued July 9, 1955.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Russell/Einstein |author-link=Thomas Hager |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page25.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref> He also supported the [[Mainau Declaration]]  of July 15, 1955, signed by 52 Nobel Prize laureates.<ref name="Snow">{{Cite book |last=Hermann |first=Armin |title=The new physics: the route into the atomic age: in memory of Albert Einstein, Max von Laue, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner |date=1979 |publisher=Inter Nationes |location=Bonn-Bad Godesberg |page=130}}</ref>

In May 1957, working with  [[Washington University in St. Louis]] professor [[Barry Commoner]], Pauling began to circulate a petition among scientists to stop nuclear testing.<ref name="Tooth">{{Cite web |title=The Baby Tooth Survey |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/tag/committee-for-nuclear-information/ |access-date=June 1, 2011 |website=The Pauling Blog}}</ref>  On January 15, 1958, Pauling and his wife presented a petition to United Nations Secretary General [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] calling for an end to [[nuclear testing|the testing of nuclear weapons]].  It was signed by 11,021 scientists representing fifty countries.<ref name="NobelLecture">{{Cite web |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 1962 Linus Pauling: Nobel Lecture |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1962/pauling-lecture.html |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Nobel Prize.org}}</ref><ref name="NobelBlog">{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Receives the Nobel Peace Prize |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/tag/united-nations-bomb-test-petition/ |access-date=December 10, 2013 |website=The Pauling Blog}}</ref>

In February 1958, Pauling participated in a publicly televised debate with the atomic physicist [[Edward Teller]] about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations.<ref name="Moore">{{Cite book |last=Moore |first=Kelly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qlBCTlVq_0EC&pg=PA113 |title=Disrupting science : social movements, American scientists, and the politics of the military, 1945–1975 |date=2008 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11352-4 |location=Princeton |page=113 |access-date=May 28, 2015}}</ref>  Later in 1958, Pauling published ''No more war!'', in which he not only called for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons but also an end to war itself. He proposed that a World Peace Research Organization be set up as part of the United Nations to "attack the problem of preserving the peace".<ref name="Nobel" />

Pauling also supported the work of the St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear Information (CNI).<ref name=Tooth/> This group, headed by [[Barry Commoner]], Eric Reiss,  M. W. Friedlander and John Fowler, organized a longitudinal study to measure radioactive [[strontium]]-90 in the [[baby teeth]] of children across North America.  The "[[Baby Tooth Survey]]", published by [[Louise Reiss]], demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of [[nuclear fallout|radioactive fallout]] spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reiss |first=Louise Zibold |author-link=Louise Reiss |date=November 24, 1961 |title=Strontium-90 Absorption by Deciduous Teeth: Analysis of teeth provides a practicable method of monitoring strontium-90 uptake by human populations |journal=Science |volume=134 |issue=3491 |pages=1669–1673 |doi=10.1126/science.134.3491.1669 |pmid=14491339}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Strontium-90 |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page26.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=The Right to Petition |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page27.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref>  The Committee for Nuclear Information is frequently credited for its significant contribution to supporting the test ban,<ref name="McCormick">{{Cite book |last=McCormick |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xC16yGp9-HUC&pg=PA70 |title=Reclaiming paradise : the global environmental movement |date=1991 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20660-2 |edition=1st Midland |location=Bloomington |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref> as is the ground-breaking research conducted by Reiss and the "Baby Tooth Survey".<ref name="activism">{{Cite book |last1=Allen |first1=Garland E. |author1-link=Garland E. Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7axYHFEomgMC&pg=PA302 |title=Science, history and social activism : a tribute to Everett Mendelsohn |last2=MacLeod |first2=Roy M. |date=2001 |publisher=Kluwer Academic |isbn=978-1-4020-0495-7 |location=Dordrecht |page=302 |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref>

Public pressure and the frightening results of the CNI research led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], signed in 1963 by [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Nikita Khrushchev]].  On the day that the treaty went into force, October 10, 1963, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for 1962.  (No prize had previously been awarded for that year.)<ref name="PaloAlto">{{Cite news |date=October 10, 1963 |title=Nobel Peace Prize Awarded to Pauling |work=Palo Alto Times |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1963n.30.html |access-date=May 27, 2015}}</ref>  They described him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use, but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=October 10, 1963 |title=Notes by Linus Pauling. October 10, 1963 |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/notes/rnb23-100.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}</ref>  Pauling himself acknowledged his wife Ava's deep involvement in peace work, and regretted that she was not awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with him.<ref name="LPIBio">{{Cite web |date=May 9, 2014 |title=Linus Pauling Biography |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/linus-pauling-biography |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling Institute}}</ref>

===Political criticism===
[[File:Linus Pauling's beret at the Nobel Museum (51969).jpg|thumb|Pauling's beret on display at the [[Nobel Prize Museum]]]]
Many of Pauling's critics, including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry, disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naïve spokesman for [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet communism]]. In 1960, he was ordered to appear before the [[United States Senate Subcommittee on Internal Security|Senate Internal Security Subcommittee]],<ref name="Senate">{{Cite web |title=issued to Linus Pauling by the Internal Security Subcommittee of the United States Senate. June 20, 1960 |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/papers/bio2.021.3.html |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement}}</ref> which termed him "the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country".<ref name=Humanism/> A headline in ''[[Life magazine|Life]]'' magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as "A Weird Insult from Norway".<ref name="Kovac">{{Cite journal |last=Kovac |first=Jeffrey |date=1999 |title=A weird insult from Norway: Linus Pauling as public intellectual |journal=Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal |volume=82 |issue=1/2 |pages=91–106 |jstor=41178914}}</ref><ref name="Life">{{Cite magazine |date=October 25, 1963 |title=A Weird Insult From Norway |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UlIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA6 |magazine=Life |volume=5 |page=4 |number=17}}</ref>

Pauling was a frequent target of the ''[[National Review]]'' magazine. In an article entitled "The Collaborators" in the magazine's July 17, 1962, issue, Pauling was referred to not only as a collaborator, but as a "fellow traveler" of proponents of Soviet-style communism.  In 1963, Pauling sued the magazine, its publisher [[William Rusher]], and its editor [[William F. Buckley, Jr]] for $1 million. He lost both his libel suits and the 1968 appeal (unlike his earlier 1963 libel case against the [[Hearst Corporation]]), because in the meantime the landmark case ''[[New York Times Co. v. Sullivan]]'' had established the [[actual malice]] standard for libel lawsuits by public figures, requiring that not only falsehood but deliberate lying should be proved by the plaintiff in such cases.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 30, 2013 |title=The National Review Lawsuit |url=http://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2013/01/30/the-national-review-lawsuit/ |access-date=December 20, 2013 |publisher=Paulingblog}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A Tough Conclusion to the National Review Lawsuit |url=http://paulingblog.wordpress.com/tag/william-f-buckley/ |access-date=December 20, 2013 |publisher=Paulingblog}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pauling v. Nat'l Review, Inc |url=http://law.justia.com/cases/new-york/court-of-appeals/1968/22-n-y-2d-818-0.html |access-date=December 20, 2013 |website=Justia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Saxon |first=Wolfgang |date=August 30, 1998 |title=C. Dickerman Williams, 97, Free-Speech Lawyer, Is Dead |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/08/30/nyregion/c-dickerman-williams-97-free-speech-lawyer-is-dead.html |access-date=December 20, 2013}}</ref>

His peace activism, his frequent travels, and his enthusiastic expansion into chemical-biomedical research all aroused opposition at Caltech. In 1958, the Caltech Board of Trustees demanded that Pauling step down as chairman of the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division.<ref name=LATimes1994/>{{rp|2}}  Although he had retained tenure as a full professor, Pauling chose to resign from Caltech after he received the Nobel peace prize money. He spent the next three years at the [[Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions]] (1963–1967).<ref name="Abrams" /> In 1967, he moved to the University of California at San Diego, but remained there only briefly, leaving in 1969 in part because of political tensions with the Reagan-era board of regents.<ref name=LATimes1994/>{{rp|3}}  From 1969 to 1974, he accepted a position as professor of chemistry at Stanford University.<ref name="OH" />

===Vietnam war activism===
During the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson's policy of increasing America's involvement in the Vietnam War caused an [[anti-war movement]] that the Paulings joined with enthusiasm. Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unconstitutional. He made speeches, signed protest letters and communicated personally with the North Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, and gave the lengthy written response to President Johnson. His efforts were ignored by the American government.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement: Vietnam |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page49.html |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries}}</ref>

[[File:27. Tagung 1977 Chemiker; Linus C. Pauling Porträt - W134Nr.108890d - Willy Pragher.jpg|thumb|Pauling in 1977]]
Pauling was awarded the [[Lenin Peace Prize|International Lenin Peace Prize]] by the USSR in 1970.<ref name="Humanism">{{Cite journal |last=Mason |first=Stephen F. |date=1997 |title=The Science and Humanism of Linus Pauling (1901–1994) |url=http://oregonstate.edu/dept/spc/subpages/ahp/overview/entirearticle.htm |url-status=dead |journal=Chemical Society Reviews |volume=26 |pages=29–39 |doi=10.1039/cs9972600029 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515124732/http://oregonstate.edu/dept/spc/subpages/ahp/overview/entirearticle.htm |archive-date=May 15, 2009 |access-date=May 20, 2015|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="LeninPrize">{{Cite web |date=May 16, 2011 |title=Lenin Peace Prize Recipients |url=http://www.researchhistory.org/2011/05/16/lenin-peace-prize-recipients/ |website=Research History}}</ref>  He continued his peace activism in the following years.  He and his wife Ava helped to found the [[International League of Humanists]] in 1974.<ref name="HumanistFounders">{{Cite web |title=Founders |url=http://www.intlh.com/index_enu.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611040404/http://www.intlh.com/index_enu.html |archive-date=June 11, 2015 |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=International League of Humanists for peace and tolerance }}</ref> He was president of the scientific advisory board of the [[World Union for Protection of Life]] and also one of the signatories of the [[Dubrovnik–Philadelphia statement]] of 1974/1976.<ref name="Dubrovnik">{{Cite web |title=The Dubrovnik-Philadelphia Statement /1974–1976/ (short version) |url=http://www.intlh.com/statement.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035630/http://www.intlh.com/statement.html |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=International League of Humanists }}</ref> Linus Carl Pauling was an honorary president and member of the International Academy of Science, Munich, until the end of his life.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.ias-icsd.org/history.html |access-date=March 16, 2015 |website=International Academy of Science, Munich |archive-date=2015-04-02  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142953/http://www.ias-icsd.org/history.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Pauling was also a supporter of the [[Fair Play for Cuba Committee]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Johnson |editor1-first=Loch K. |title=Handbook of Intelligence Studies |date=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=275}}</ref>

=== Global activism ===
He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a [[world constitution]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961 |url=https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8 |access-date=July 1, 2023 |website=Helen Keller Archive |publisher=American Foundation for the Blind}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from World Constitution Coordinating Committee to Helen, enclosing current materials |url=https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.6 |access-date=July 3, 2023 |website=Helen Keller Archive |publisher=American Foundation for the Blind}}</ref> As a result, for the first time in human history, a [[World Constituent Assembly]] convened to draft and adopt a [[Constitution for the Federation of Earth]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Preparing earth constitution {{!}} Global Strategies & Solutions {{!}} The Encyclopedia of World Problems |url=http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/strategy/193465 |access-date=July 15, 2023 |website=The Encyclopedia of World Problems {{!}} Union of International Associations (UIA) |archive-date=2023-07-19  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719215501/http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/strategy/193465 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Eugenics===
Pauling supported a limited form of [[eugenics]] by suggesting that human carriers of defective genes be given a compulsory visible mark – such as a forehead tattoo – to discourage potential mates with the same defect, in order to reduce the number of babies with diseases such as [[sickle cell anemia]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mendelsohn |first=Everett |author-link=Everett Mendelsohn |date=March–April 2000 |title=The Eugenic Temptation |url=http://harvardmagazine.com/2000/03/the-eugenic-temptation.html |website=Harvard Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Special Collections & Archives Research Center, Oregon State University Libraries |date=2015 |title=Eugenics for Alleviating Human Suffering |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/blood/narrative/page35.html |access-date=May 30, 2020 |website=It's in the Blood! A Documentary History of Linus Pauling, Hemoglobin and Sickle Cell Anemia}}</ref>

===Medical research and vitamin C advocacy===
{{main|Vitamin C megadosage}}
[[File:Pauling Vit C Book Cover.jpg|right|150px|thumb|Pauling's book, ''How to Live Longer and Feel Better'', advocated very high intake of [[Vitamin C]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=How to Live Longer and Feel Better |publisher=Avon Books |year=1987 |edition=1 |location=New York |ol=18076125M}}</ref>]]

In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with [[Bright's disease]], a renal disease. Following the recommendations of [[Thomas Addis]], who actively recruited Ava Helen Pauling as "nutritionist, cook, and eventually as deputy 'doctor'", Pauling believed he was able to control the disease with Addis's then-unusual low-protein salt-free diet and vitamin supplements.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peitzman |first=Steven J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FUDO5K1pAoC&pg=PA72 |title=Dropsy, dialysis, transplant: a short history of failing kidneys |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8018-8734-5 |location=Baltimore |pages=72–8; 190}}</ref> Thus Pauling's initial – and intensely personal – exposure to the idea of treating disease with vitamin supplements was positive.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

In 1965, Pauling read ''Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry'' by [[Abram Hoffer]] and theorized vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Biochemical imbalances in disease a practitioner's handbook |publisher=Singing Dragon |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-85701-028-5 |editor-last=Nicolle |editor-first=Lorraine |location=London |page=27 |editor-last2=Beirne |editor-first2=Ann Woodriff}}</ref> In 1968, Pauling published a brief paper in [[Science (journal)|''Science'']] entitled "Orthomolecular psychiatry",<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=April 1968 |title=Orthomolecular psychiatry. Varying the concentrations of substances normally present in the human body may control mental disease |journal=Science |volume=160 |issue=3825 |pages=265–71 |bibcode=1968Sci...160..265P |doi=10.1126/science.160.3825.265 |pmid=5641253 |s2cid=20153555}}</ref> giving a name to the popular but controversial [[megavitamin therapy]] movement of the 1970s, and advocating that "orthomolecular therapy, the provision for the individual person of the optimum concentrations of important normal constituents of the brain, may be the preferred treatment for many mentally ill patients." Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease. His ideas formed the basis of [[orthomolecular medicine]], which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and has been strongly criticized.<ref name="Cassileth">{{Cite book |last=Cassileth |first=Barrie R. |author-link=Barrie R. Cassileth |title=The alternative medicine handbook: the complete reference guide to alternative and complementary therapies |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-393-04566-6 |location=New York |pages=67}}</ref><ref name="bccancer">{{Cite web |date=February 2000 |title=Vitamin Therapy, Megadose / Orthomolecular Therapy |url=http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/PPI/UnconventionalTherapies/VitaminTherapyMegadoseOrthomolecularTherapy.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202102734/http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/PPI/UnconventionalTherapies/VitaminTherapyMegadoseOrthomolecularTherapy.htm |archive-date=February 2, 2007 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=BC Cancer Agency}}</ref>

In 1973, with [[Arthur B. Robinson]] and another colleague, Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park, California, which was soon renamed the [[Linus Pauling Institute]] of Science and Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death. In his last years, he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing [[atherosclerosis]] and published three case reports on the use of [[lysine]] and vitamin C to relieve [[angina pectoris]]. During the 1990s, Pauling put forward a comprehensive plan for the treatment of heart disease using lysine and vitamin C. In 1996, a website was created expounding Pauling's treatment which it referred to as Pauling Therapy. Proponents of Pauling Therapy believe that  heart disease can be treated and even cured using only lysine and Vitamin C and without drugs or heart operations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PaulingTherapy.com – Reversing Heart Disease w/o Drugs is Possible |url=http://www.paulingtherapy.com/ |website=www.paulingtherapy.com}}</ref>

Pauling's work on [[vitamin C]] in his later years generated much controversy. He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist [[Irwin Stone]] in 1966. After becoming convinced of its worth, Pauling took 3&nbsp;grams of vitamin C every day to prevent [[colds]].<ref name="frs" /> Excited by his own perceived results, he researched the clinical literature and published ''[[Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book)|Vitamin C and the Common Cold]]'' in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon [[Ewan Cameron (physician)|Ewan Cameron]] in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cameron |first=Ewan |author-link=Ewan Cameron |title=Cancer Bibliography: Ewan Cameron, M.D. and Vitamin C Therapy |url=http://www.doctoryourself.com/biblio_cameron.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Doctoryourself.com}}</ref> Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, ''Cancer and Vitamin C'', that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public<ref name="OnThisDay">{{Cite news |last=Severo |first=Richard |date=August 21, 1994 |title=Linus C. Pauling Dies at 93; Chemist and Voice for Peace |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0228.html |access-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref> and eventually published two studies of a group of 100 allegedly [[terminal illness|terminal]] patients that claimed vitamin C increased survival by as much as four times compared to untreated patients.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=E |author1-link=Ewan Cameron |last2=Pauling |first2=L |date=October 1976 |title=Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer: Prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=73 |issue=10 |pages=3685–9 |bibcode=1976PNAS...73.3685C |doi=10.1073/pnas.73.10.3685 |pmc=431183 |pmid=1068480 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=E |author1-link=Ewan Cameron |last2=Pauling |first2=L |date=September 1978 |title=Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer: Reevaluation of prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=75 |issue=9 |pages=4538–42 |bibcode=1978PNAS...75.4538C |doi=10.1073/pnas.75.9.4538 |pmc=336151 |pmid=279931 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

A re-evaluation of the claims in 1982 found that the patient groups were not actually comparable, with the vitamin C group being less sick on entry to the study, and judged to be "terminal" much earlier than the comparison group.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=DeWys |first=WD |year=1982 |title=How to evaluate a new treatment for cancer |journal=Your Patient and Cancer |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=31–36}}</ref> Later clinical trials conducted by the [[Mayo Clinic]] led by oncologist [[Edward T. Creagan|Dr. Edward T. Creagan]] also concluded that high-dose (10,000&nbsp;mg) vitamin C was no better than [[placebo]] at treating cancer and that there was no benefit to high-dose vitamin C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Creagan |first1=ET |last2=Moertel |first2=CG |last3=O'Fallon |first3=JR |date=September 1979 |title=Failure of high-dose vitamin C (ascorbic acid) therapy to benefit patients with advanced cancer. A controlled trial |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=301 |issue=13 |pages=687–90 |doi=10.1056/NEJM197909273011303 |pmid=384241}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moertel |first1=CG |last2=Fleming |first2=TR |last3=Creagan |first3=ET |last4=Rubin |first4=J |last5=O'Connell |first5=MJ |last6=Ames |first6=MM |date=January 1985 |title=High-dose vitamin C versus placebo in the treatment of patients with advanced cancer who have had no prior chemotherapy. A randomized double-blind comparison |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=312 |issue=3 |pages=137–41 |doi=10.1056/NEJM198501173120301 |pmid=3880867}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tschetter |first=L |display-authors=etal |year=1983 |title=A community-based study of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in patients with advanced cancer |journal=Proceedings of the American Society of Clinical Oncology |volume=2 |page=92}}</ref> The failure of the clinical trials to demonstrate any benefit resulted in the conclusion that vitamin C was not effective in treating cancer; the medical establishment concluded that his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds or treat cancer were [[quackery]].<ref name="frs" /><ref name="PNASChen2007">{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Q |last2=Espey |first2=M. G. |last3=Sun |first3=A. Y. |last4=Lee |first4=J.-H. |last5=Krishna |first5=M. C. |last6=Shacter |first6=E. |last7=Choyke |first7=P. L. |last8=Pooput |first8=C. |last9=Kirk |first9=K. L. |last10=Buettner |first10=G. R. |last11=Levine |first11=M. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=21 |pages=8749–54 |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.8749C |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702854104 |pmc=1885574 |pmid=17502596 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as "fraud and deliberate misrepresentation",<ref>{{Cite web |last=Goertzel |first=Ted |author-link=Ted Goertzel |year=1996 |title=Analyzing Pauling's Personality: A Three Generational, Three Decade Project |url=http://oregonstate.edu/dept/Special_Collections/subpages/ahp/1995symposium/goertzel.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014174038/http://oregonstate.edu/dept/Special_Collections/subpages/ahp/1995symposium/goertzel.html |archive-date=October 14, 2007 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Special Collections, Oregon State University Libraries}}</ref><ref name="Golem">{{Cite book |last1=Pinch |first1=Trevor |author1-link=Trevor Pinch |title=Dr. Golem: how to think about medicine |last2=Collins |first2=Harry M. |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-226-11366-1 |location=Chicago |pages=89–111 |chapter=Alternative Medicine: The Cases of Vitamin C and Cancer |chapter-url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/113663.html}}</ref> and criticized the studies for using oral, rather than [[intravenous therapy|intravenous]] vitamin C<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Levine |first=M |display-authors=etal |year=2006 |title=Intravenously administered vitamin C as cancer therapy: three cases |journal=[[Canadian Medical Association Journal|CMAJ]] |volume=174 |issue=7 |pages=937–942 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.050346 |pmc=1405876 |pmid=16567755}}</ref> (which was the dosing method used for the first ten days of Pauling's original study<ref name=PNASChen2007/>). Pauling also criticised the Mayo Clinic studies because the controls were taking vitamin C during the trial, and because the duration of the treatment with vitamin C was short; Pauling advocated continued high-dose vitamin C for the rest of the cancer patient's life whereas the Mayo Clinic patients in the second trial were treated with vitamin C for a median of 2.5 months.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |url=https://archive.org/details/howtolivelongerf00paul/page/173 |title=How to Live Longer and Feel Better |publisher=[[W. H. Freeman and Company|Freeman]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-7167-1781-2 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtolivelongerf00paul/page/173 173–175]}}</ref>

Ultimately the negative findings of the Mayo Clinic studies ended general interest in vitamin C as a treatment for cancer.<ref name = Golem/> Despite this, Pauling continued to promote vitamin C for treating cancer and the common cold, working with [[The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential]] to use vitamin C in the treatment of brain-injured children.<ref name="Pauling1978">{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L |date=November 1978 |title=Orthomolecular enhancement of human development |url=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/B/B/K/G/_/mmbbkg.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/B/B/K/G/_/mmbbkg.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |journal=Human Neurological Development |pages=47–51 |editor=Ralph Pelligra}}</ref> He later collaborated with the Canadian physician [[Abram Hoffer]] on a micronutrient regime, including high-dose vitamin C, as adjunctive cancer therapy.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Saul |first1=Andrew W. |last2=Dr. Abram Hoffer |title=Abram Hoffer, M.D., PhD 50 Years of Megavitamin Research, Practice and Publication |url=http://www.doctoryourself.com/biblio_hoffer.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Doctoryourself.com}}</ref> A 2009 review also noted differences between the studies, such as the Mayo Clinic not using intravenous Vitamin C, and suggested further studies into the role of vitamin C when given intravenously.<ref name="Cancerreevaluated">{{Cite journal |last1=Ohno |first1=S |last2=Ohno |first2=Y |last3=Suzuki |first3=N |last4=Soma |first4=G |last5=Inoue |first5=M |year=2009 |title=High-dose vitamin C (ascorbic acid) therapy in the treatment of patients with advanced cancer |journal=Anticancer Research |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=809–15 |pmid=19414313}}</ref>  Results from most clinical trials suggest that modest vitamin C supplementation alone or with other nutrients offers no benefit in the prevention of cancer.<ref name="Oncologist">{{Cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Carmel |last2=Hutton |first2=Brian |last3=Ng |first3=Terry |last4=Shorr |first4=Risa |last5=Clemons |first5=Mark |date=2015 |title=Is There a Role for Oral or Intravenous Ascorbate (Vitamin C) in Treating Patients With Cancer? A Systematic Review |journal=The Oncologist |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=210–223 |doi=10.1634/theoncologist.2014-0381 |pmc=4319640 |pmid=25601965}}</ref><ref name="NIHFactsheet">{{Cite web |title=Vitamin C Fact Sheet for Health Professionals |url=http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-HealthProfessional/ |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=National Institutes of Health}}</ref>