Editing Lothal (section)

==Religion==
[[File:Ancient site at Lothal14.jpg|thumb|Twin burial from Lothal.]]
The people of Lothal worshipped a fire god who is speculated to be the horned deity depicted on seals. The presence of private and public fire-altars where religious ceremonies were hosted further testifies to their spiritual beliefs. Archaeologists have discovered gold pendants, charred ashes of terra-cotta cakes and pottery, bovine remains, beads and other signs that may indicate the practice of the Gavamayana sacrifice, associated with the ancient [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]].<ref name="RaoDA">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| pages = 43–45
| year = 1985
}}</ref> Animal worship is also evidenced, but not the worship of the [[Mother Goddess]] that is evidenced in other [[Harappa]]n cities—experts consider this a sign of the existence of diversity in religious traditions. However, it is believed that a sea goddess, perhaps cognate with the general Indus-era Mother Goddess, was worshipped. Today, the local villagers likewise worship a sea goddess, ''Vanuvati Sikotarimata'', suggesting a connection with the ancient port's traditions and historical past as an access to the sea.<ref name="R2">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| page = 2
| year = 1985
}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = India|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2006|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-46833/India|access-date=6 April 2006}}</ref> But the archaeologists also discovered that the practice had been given up by 2000&nbsp;BCE (determined by the difference in burial times of the [[carbon dating|carbon-dated]] remains). It is suggested that the practice occurred only on occasion. It is also considered that given the small number of graves discovered—only 17 in an estimated population of 15,000—the citizens of Lothal also practised [[cremation]] of the dead. Post-cremation burials have been noted in other Indus sites like Harappa, Mehi and Damb-Bhuti.<ref name="Rao45">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| page = 45
| year = 1985
}}</ref>

===Metallurgy and jewellery===
[[File:Lothal seals.jpg|thumb|Lothal seals]]
Lothal copper is unusually pure, lacking the [[arsenic]] typically used by coppersmiths across the rest of the Indus valley. The city imported [[ingot]]s from probable sources in the Arabian peninsula. Workers mixed tin with copper for the manufacture of [[celt (tool)|celts]], arrowheads, fishhooks, chisels, bangles, rings, drills, and spearheads, although weapon manufacturing was minor. They also employed advanced metallurgy in following the ''cire perdue'' technique of casting, and used more than one-piece moulds for casting birds and animals.<ref name="Rao43VA">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| page = 42
| year = 1985
}}</ref> They also invented new tools such as curved saws and twisted drills unknown to other civilisations at the time.<ref name="Rao412">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| pages = 41–42
| year = 1985}}</ref>

Lothal was one of the most important centres of production for shell-working, owing to the abundance of chank shell of high quality found in the [[Gulf of Kutch]] and near the [[Kathiawar]] coast.<ref name="Rao43VA"/> Gamesmen, beads, [[unguent]] vessels, [[chank]] shells, ladles and inlays were made for export and local consumption. Components of stringed musical instruments like the [[plectrum]] and the [[bridge (instrument)|bridge]] were made of shell.<ref name = "Rao43"/> An ivory workshop was operated under strict official supervision, and the domestication of elephants has been suggested. An ivory seal, and sawn pieces for boxes, combs, rods, inlays and ear-studs were found during excavations.<ref name="Rao43">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| page = 43
| year = 1985
}}</ref> Lothal produced a large quantity of gold ornaments—the most attractive item being microbeads of gold in five strands in necklaces, unique for being less than 0.25&nbsp;millimetres (0.010&nbsp;inches) in diameter. Cylindrical, globular and jasper beads of gold with edges at right angles resemble modern pendants used by women in [[Gujarat]] in plaits of hair. A large disc with holes recovered from a sacrificial altar is compared to the ''rukma'' worn by Vedic priests. Studs, cogwheel and heart-shaped ornaments of [[faience]] and [[steatite]] were popular in Lothal. A ring of thin copper wire turned into double spirals resembles the gold-wire rings used by modern Hindus for weddings.<ref name="RaoVI">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| pages = 33–34
| year = 1985
}}</ref>

===Art===
[[File:Ancient site at Lothal115.jpg|thumb|Archaeological Museum of Lothal, replica of seal.]]
[[File:Lothal pottery.png|thumb|Pieces of red [[clay]] pottery]]
The discovery of etched [[carnelian]] beads and non-etched barrel beads in [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] and [[Ur]] (modern [[Iraq]]), [[Jalalabad]] ([[Afghanistan]]) and [[Susa]] ([[Iran]]) attest to the popularity of the Indus bead industry across West Asia.<ref name="RaoS">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| pages = 31–33
| year = 1985
}}</ref> The [[lapidary|lapidaries]] select stones of variegated colours, producing beads of different shapes and sizes. The methods of Lothal bead-makers were so advanced that no improvements have been noted over 4,000&nbsp;years—modern makers in the [[Khambhat]] area follow the same technique. Double-eye beads of [[agate]] and collared or gold-capped beads of [[jasper]] and carnelian beads are among those attributed as uniquely from Lothal. It was very famous for micro-cylindrical beads of [[steatite]] (chlorite).<ref name="RaoVI"/>
The Lothal excavation yielded 213 seals, third in volume amongst all Indus sites. Seal-cutters preferred short-horned bulls, mountain goats, tigers and composite animals like the elephant-bull for engravings. There is a short inscription of [[intaglio (jewellery)|intaglio]] in almost every seal. Stamp seals with inserted copper rings in a perforated button were used to seal the cargo with impressions of packing materials like mats, twisted cloth, and cords. These seals were only verified at Lothal. Quantitative descriptions along with seals of rulers and owners were stamped on goods. A unique seal found here is from [[Bahrain]]—circular, with motif of a dragon flanked by jumping gazelles.<ref name="Rao3G">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| pages = 35–36
| year = 1985
}}</ref>

Lothal offers two new types of pottery, a convex bowl with or without stud handle and a small jar with flaring rim, both of which were found in the [[mica]]ceous Red Ware period and not in contemporary Indus cultures. Lothal artists introduced a new form of realistic painting.<ref name="V457">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| pages = 45–47
| year = 1985
}}</ref> Paintings depict animals in their natural surroundings. On one large vessel, the artist depicts birds with fish in their beaks, resting in a tree, while a fox-like animal stands below. This scene bears resemblance to the story of [[The Fox and the Crow (Aesop)|The Fox and the Crow]] in the ''[[Panchatantra]]''.<ref name="Rao46F">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| page = 46
| year = 1985
}}</ref> Artistic imagination is also suggested via careful portrayals—for example, several birds with legs aloft in the sky suggest flight, while half-opened wings suggest imminent flight. On a miniature jar, the story of the thirsty crow and deer is depicted – of how the deer could not drink from the narrow-mouth of the jar, while the crow succeeded by dropping stones in the jar. The features of the animals are clear and graceful. Movements and emotions are suggested by the positioning of limbs and facial features—in a {{convert|15|x|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} jar without overcrowding.<ref name="Rao46F"/>

A complete set of terra-cotta gamesmen, has been found in Lothal—animal figures, pyramids with ivory handles and castle-like objects (similar to the chess set of Queen [[Hatshepsut]] in Egypt).<ref name="Ra5">{{cite book
| title = Lothal
| publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| author = S. R. Rao
| author-link = S. R. Rao
| pages = 47–48
| year = 1985
}}</ref> The realistic portrayal of human beings and animals suggests a careful study of anatomical and natural features. The bust of a male with slit eyes, sharp nose, and square-cut beard is reminiscent of [[Sumer]]ian figures, especially stone sculptures from [[Mari, Syria|Mari]]. In images of men and women, muscular and physical features are sharp, prominently marked. Terra-cotta models also identify the differences between species of dogs and bulls, including those of horses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_exca_imp_gujarat.asp|title=Excavation Sites in Gujarat – Archaeological Survey of India|website=asi.nic.in|access-date=2018-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011172932/http://asi.nic.in/asi_exca_imp_gujarat.asp|archive-date=11 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Animal figures with wheels and a movable head may have been utilised as toys.

===Cultivation and Diet===

Rice was the major food crop but Ragi, jowar was also popular in lothal. Various types of lentils were also part of the diet. The bones of many animals including domesticated and wild give the indication of a wide food culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Achaya |first=K. T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bk9RHRCqZOkC |title=The Story of Our Food |date=2003 |publisher=Universities Press |isbn=978-81-7371-293-7 |pages=12–13 |language=en}}</ref>