Editing Manx language (section)

== Classification and dialects ==
{{IPA notice}}
Manx is one of the three [[daughter language]]s of [[Old Irish]] (via [[Middle Irish]]), the other two being [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Scottish Gaelic]]. It shares a number of developments in phonology, vocabulary and grammar with its [[Sister language|sisters]] (in some cases only with certain dialects) and shows a number of unique changes. There are two attested historical dialects of Manx, Northern Manx and [[Southern Manx Dialect|Southern Manx]].<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 1:xxvii–xxviii, 160</ref> A third dialect may have existed in-between, around Douglas{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}}.

===Similarities to and differences from Irish and Scottish Gaelic===
{{main|Comparison of Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic}}
Manx and Scottish Gaelic share the partial loss of phonemic [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalisation]] of [[labial consonant]]s; while in Irish [[Velarization|velarised]] consonants {{IPA|/pˠ bˠ fˠ w mˠ/}} contrast [[phonemically]] with palatalised {{IPA|/pʲ bʲ fʲ vʲ mʲ/}}.<ref>Jackson 1955, 66. Jackson claims that northern Irish has also lost the contrast between velarised and palatalised labials, but this seems to be a mistake on his part, as both [[County Mayo|Mayo]] Irish and Ulster Irish are consistently described as having the contrast (cf. Mhac an Fhailigh 1968, 27; Hughes 1994, 621; see also Ó Baoill 1978, 87)</ref> A consequence of this [[phonemic merger]] is that Middle Irish unstressed word-final {{IPA|[əβʲ]}} (-{{vr|(a)ibh, (a)imh}} in Irish and Gaelic) has merged with {{IPA|[əβ]}} (-{{vr|(e)abh, (e)amh}} in Irish and Gaelic), in Manx; both have become {{IPA|[u]}} (-{{vr|oo, u(e)}}), e.g. {{lang|gv|shassoo}} "to stand" (Irish {{lang|ga|seasamh}}), {{lang|gv|credjue}} "religion" (Irish {{lang|ga|creideamh}}), {{lang|gv|nealloo}} "fainting" ([[Early Modern Irish]] {{lang|ga|i néalaibh}}, lit. ''in clouds''), and {{lang|gv|erriu}} "on you (pl.)" (Irish {{lang|ga|oraibh}}).<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 77–82; Broderick 1984–86, 2:152</ref>

Medial and final *{{vr|bh, mh}} have generally become {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/w/}} in Manx, thus {{lang|gv|shiu}} 'you pl.' (Irish and Scottish Gaelic {{lang|sg|sibh}}; [[Isle of Lewis|Lewis]] Gaelic {{Lang|gd|siù}}), {{lang|gv|sharroo}} "bitter" (Scottish {{lang|gd|searbh}} {{IPA|/ˈʃɛɾˠɛv/}}, Irish {{lang|ga|searbh}} (Northern/Western) {{IPA|/ʃaɾˠu/}}, (Southern) {{IPA|/ʃaɾˠəβˠ/}}), {{lang|gv|awin}} "river" (Scottish {{lang|gd|abhainn}} {{IPA|/aviɲ/}}, Irish {{lang|ga|abhainn}} (Northern) {{IPA|/oːn̠ʲ/}}) (Western) {{IPA|/aun̠ʲ/}} (Southern) {{IPA|/aunʲ/}}, {{lang|gv|laaue}} "hand" (Scottish {{lang|gd|làmh}} {{IPA|/l̪ˠaːvˠ/}}, Irish {{lang|gv|lámh}} (Northern) {{IPA|/l̪ˠæːw/}}, (Western) {{IPA|/l̪ˠɑːw/}}, (Southern) {{IPA|/l̪ˠɑːβˠ/}}), {{lang|gv|sourey}} "summer" (Scottish {{lang|gd|samhradh}} {{IPA|/saurəɣ/}}, Irish {{lang|ga|samhradh}} (Northern) {{IPA|/sˠauɾˠu/}}, (Western/Southern) {{IPA|/sˠauɾˠə/}}). Rare retentions of the older pronunciation of {{vr|bh}} include {{lang|gv|Divlyn}}, {{lang|gv|Divlin}} "Dublin", Middle Irish ''Duibhlind'' {{IPA|/d̪uβʲlʲin̠ʲː/}}.

Moreover, similarly to [[Munster Irish]], historical {{vr|bh}} ({{IPA|[βʲ]}}) and {{vr|mh}} ([[Nasalization|nasalised]] {{IPA|[βʲ]}}) tend to be lost word medially or finally in Manx, either with [[compensatory lengthening]] or vocalisation as {{IPA|[u]}} resulting in [[diphthong]]isation with the preceding vowel, e.g. {{lang|gv|geurey}} "winter" {{IPA|[ˈɡʲeurə, -uːrə]}} (Irish {{lang|ga|geimhreadh}} (Southern) {{IPA|[ˈɟiːɾʲə]}}) and {{lang|gv|sleityn}} "mountains" {{IPA|[ˈsleːdʒən]}} (Irish {{lang|ga|sléibhte}} (Southern) {{IPA|[ˈʃlʲeːtʲə]}}).<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 24; Broderick 1984–86 3:80–83; Ó Sé 2000:15, 120</ref> Another similarity to Munster Irish is the development of the Old Irish diphthongs {{IPA|[ai oi]}} before velarised consonants ({{vr|ao}} in Irish and Scottish Gaelic) to {{IPA|[eː]}}, as in {{lang|gv|seyr}} "carpenter" {{IPA|[seːr]}} and {{lang|gv|keyl}} "narrow" {{IPA|[keːl]}} (Irish and Scottish {{lang|ga|saor}} and {{lang|ga|caol}}).<ref>Jackson 1955, 47–50; Ó Cuív 1944, 38, 91</ref>

Like [[Connacht Irish|Connacht]] and [[Ulster Irish]] (cf. [[Irish phonology#Word-initial consonant clusters|Irish phonology]]) and most dialects of Scottish Gaelic, Manx has changed the historical [[consonant cluster]]s {{IPA|/kn ɡn mn tn/}} to {{IPA|/kr ɡr mr tr/}}, e.g. Middle Irish {{lang|mga|cnáid}} "mockery" and {{lang|mga|mná}} "women" have become {{lang|gv|craid}} and {{lang|gv|mraane}} respectively in Manx.<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 22</ref> The [[affrication]] of slender "{{vr|d, t}}" sounds is also common to Manx, Northern Irish, and Scottish Gaelic.<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 203</ref>

Unstressed Middle Irish word-final syllable {{IPA|[iʝ]}} (-{{vr|(a)idh, (a)igh}}) has developed to {{IPA|[iː]}} (-{{vr|ee}}) in Manx, as in {{lang|gv|kionnee}} "buy" (cf. Irish {{lang|ga|ceannaigh}}) and {{lang|gv|cullee}} "apparatus" (cf. Gaelic {{lang|gd|culaidh}}),<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 57</ref> like Northern/Western Irish and Southern dialects Scottish Gaelic (e.g. [[Isle of Arran|Arran]], [[Kintyre]]).

Another property Manx shares with Ulster Irish and some dialects of Scottish Gaelic is that {{IPA|/a/}} rather than {{IPA|/ə/}} appears in unstressed syllables before {{IPA|/x/}} ({{vr|agh}} in Manx), e.g. {{lang|gv|jeeragh}} "straight" {{IPA|[ˈdʒiːrax]}} (Irish {{lang|ga|díreach}}), {{lang|gv|cooinaghtyn}} "to remember" {{IPA|[ˈkuːnʲaxt̪ən]}} (Scottish Gaelic {{lang|gd|cuimhneachd}}).<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 110; Jackson 1955, 55</ref>

Like Southern and Western Irish and Northern Scottish Gaelic, but unlike the geographically closer varieties of [[Ulster Irish]] and Arran and Kintyre Gaelic, Manx shows vowel lengthening or diphthongisation before the Old Irish [[Irish phonology#Fortis and lenis sonorants|fortis and lenis sonorants]], e.g. {{lang|gv|cloan}} "children" {{IPA|[klɔːn]}}, {{lang|gv|dhone}} "brown" {{IPA|[d̪oːn]}} and {{lang|gv|eeym}} "butter" {{IPA|[iːᵇm]}} correspond to Irish/Scottish Gaelic {{lang|ga|clann}}, {{lang|ga|donn}}, and {{lang|ga|im}} respectively, which have long vowels or diphthongs in Western and Southern Irish and in the Scottish Gaelic dialects of the [[Outer Hebrides]] and [[Skye]], thus Western Irish {{IPA|[klˠɑːn̪ˠ]}}, Southern Irish/Northern Scottish {{IPA|[kl̪ˠaun̪ˠ]}}, {{IPA|[d̪ˠaun̪ˠ]/[d̪ˠoun̪ˠ]}}, {{IPA|[iːm]/[ɤim]}}), but short vowels and 'long' consonants in Ulster Irish, Arran, and Kintyre, {{IPA|[klˠan̪ːˠ]}}, {{IPA|[d̪ˠon̪ːˠ]}} and {{IPA|[imʲː]}}.<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 51; Jackson 1955, 57–58; Holmer 1957, 87, 88, 106; 1962, 41</ref>

Another similarity with Southern Irish is the treatment of Middle Irish word-final unstressed {{IPA|[əð]}} (-{{vr|(e)adh}} in Irish and Scottish Gaelic). In nouns (including [[verbal noun]]s), this became {{IPA|[ə]}} in Manx, as it did in Southern Irish, e.g. {{lang|gv|caggey}} "war" {{IPA|[ˈkaːɣə]}}, {{lang|gv|moylley}} "to praise" {{IPA|[ˈmɔlə]}} (cf. Irish {{lang|ga|cogadh}} and {{lang|ga|moladh}} (Southern Irish) {{IPA|[ˈkɔɡə]}} and {{IPA|[ˈmˠɔl̪ˠə]}}).<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 68; Broderick 1984–86, 2:56, 308</ref> In [[finite verb]] forms before full nouns (as opposed to pronouns) {{IPA|[əð]}} became {{IPA|[ax]}} in Manx, as in Southern Irish, e.g. {{lang|gv|voyllagh}} {{IPA|[ˈvɔlax]}} "would praise" (cf. Irish {{lang|ga|mholfadh}} (Southern Irish) {{IPA|[ˈβˠɔl̪ˠhəx]}}).<ref>O'Rahilly 1932, 75</ref>

===Dialects===
[[File:Manx dialects.png|thumb|left|Historical dialect map of Manx (boundaries are approximate)]]
Linguistic analysis of the last few dozen native speakers reveals a number of [[dialect]]al differences between the North and the South of the island. Northern Manx ({{Langx|gv|Gaelg Hwoaie}}) was spoken from [[Maughold (parish)|Maughold]] in the northeast to [[Peel, Isle of Man|Peel]] on the west coast. Southern Manx was spoken in the [[sheading]] of [[Rushen]]. It is possible that written Manx represents a 'midlands' dialect of [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]] and surrounding areas.

In Southern Manx, older {{vr|á}}, and in some cases {{vr|ó}}, became {{IPA|[æː]}}. In Northern Manx the same happened, but {{vr|á}} sometimes remained {{IPA|[aː]}} as well, e.g. {{lang|gv|laa}} "day" (cf. Irish {{lang|ga|lá}}) was {{IPA|[læː]}} in the South but {{IPA|[læː]}} or {{IPA|[laː]}} in the North. Old {{vr|ó}} is always {{IPA|[æː]}} in both dialects, e.g. {{lang|gv|aeg}} "young" (cf. Irish {{lang|ga|óg}}) is {{IPA|[æːɡ]}} in both dialects.<ref>Broderick 1984–8,6 1:160</ref> {{vr|á, ó}} and lengthened {{vr|a}} before {{vr|rt, rd, rg}} became {{IPA|/œː/}}, as in ''paayrt'' '"part" {{IPA|/pœːrt/}}, ''ard'' "high" {{IPA|/œːrd/}}, ''jiarg'' "red" {{IPA|/dʒœːrɡ/}}, ''argid'' "money, silver" {{IPA|/œːrɡid/}} and ''aarey'' "gold [[Genitive case|gen.]]" {{IPA|/œːrə/}}.

In Northern Manx, older {{vr|(e)a}} before {{vr|nn}} in the same syllable is diphthongised, while in Southern Manx it is lengthened but remains a [[monophthong]], e.g. {{lang|gv|kione}} "head" (cf. Irish {{lang|ga|ceann}}) is {{IPA|[kʲaun]}} in the North but {{IPA|[kʲoːn]}} in the South.<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 1:161</ref>

Words with {{vr|ua}}, and in some cases {{vr|ao}}, in Irish and Scottish are spelled with {{vr|eay}} in Manx. In Northern Manx, this sound was {{IPA|[iː]}}, while in Southern Manx it was {{IPA|[ɯː]}}, {{IPA|[uː]}}, or {{IPA|[yː]}}, e.g. {{lang|gv|geay}} "wind" (cf. Irish {{lang|ga|gaoth}}) is {{IPA|[ɡiː]}} in the north and {{IPA|[ɡɯː]}} in the South, while {{lang|gv|geayl}} "coal" (cf. Irish {{lang|ga|gual}}) is {{IPA|[ɡiːl]}} in the North and {{IPA|[ɡyːl]}}, {{IPA|[ɡɯːl]}}, or {{IPA|[ɡuːl]}} in the South.<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 1:161–62</ref>

In both the North and the South, there is a tendency to insert a short {{IPA|[d]}} before a word-final {{IPA|[n]}} in monosyllabic words, as in {{IPA|[sleᵈn]}} for {{lang|gv|slane}} "whole" and {{IPA|[beᵈn]}} for {{lang|gv|ben}} "woman". This is known as [[pre-occlusion]]. In Southern Manx, however, there is also pre-occlusion of {{IPA|[d]}} before {{IPA|[l]}} and of {{IPA|[ɡ]}} before {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, as in {{IPA|[ʃuːᵈl]}} for {{lang|gv|shooyl}} "walking" and {{IPA|[lɔᶢŋ]}} for {{lang|gv|lhong}} "ship". These forms are generally pronounced without pre-occlusion in the North. Pre-occlusion of {{IPA|[b]}} before {{IPA|[m]}}, on the other hand, is more common in the North, as in {{lang|gv|trome}} "heavy", which is {{IPA|[t̪roᵇm]}} in the North but {{IPA|[t̪roː(ᵇ)m]}} in the South.<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 1:162–63</ref> This feature is also found in [[Cornish language|Cornish]].

Southern Manx tended to lose word-initial {{IPA|[ɡ]}} before {{IPA|[lʲ]}}, which was usually preserved in the North, e.g. {{lang|gv|glion}} "glen" and {{lang|gv|glioon}} "knee" are and {{IPA|[lʲɔᵈn]}} and {{IPA|[lʲuːᵈn]}} in the South but {{IPA|[ɡlʲɔᵈn]}} and {{IPA|[ɡlʲuːn]}} in the North.<ref>Broderick 1984–86, 1:164–65</ref>

In modern times, the small size of the island and the improvement in communications precludes any regional dialect variations.
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